Journal
BIOLOGICAL REVIEWS
Volume 80, Issue 3, Pages 403-411Publisher
WILEY
DOI: 10.1017/S146479310500672X
Keywords
emergent properties; ecological systems; amplification; connectedness
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More realistic approaches are needed to understand the complexity of ecological systems. Emergent properties of real systems can be used as a basis for a new, neither reductionist nor holistic, approach. Three systems, termed here BUBBLES, WAVEs and CRYSTALS, have been identified as exhibiting emergent properties. They are non-hierarchical assemblages of individual components, with amplification and connectedness being two main principles that govern their build-up, maintenance and mutual relationships. Examples from various fields of biological and ecological science are referred to, ranging from individual organisms to landscapes.
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