Environmental Kuznets curve: threatened species and spatial effects

Several studies have found evidence of an environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for various measures of environmental degradation such as pollution and deforestation. We estimate an EKC for threatened bird and mammal species for 113 countries in 2000. For both mammals and birds, our results indicate a possible EKC curve. Birds and mammals face a greater threat on islands and endemic species are more threatened. Both are threatened where freedom is limited. Birds are threatened where political turmoil exists, while mammals are more threatened in Muslim and communistic law countries. Spatial autocorrelation exists, with shocks spilling over into surrounding countries. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.