Influence of frictional heating on temperature gradients in ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography on 2.1 mm ID columns

The effects of viscous heat dissipation on some important HPLC parameters, such as efficiency (N) and retention factors (k), using 2.1 mm columns at pressures up to 1000 bar have been investigated from both a theoretical and experimental point of view. Two distinct experimental setups and their respective influences on non-homogenous temperature gradients within the column are described and discussed. In the first instance, a still-air column heater was used. This set-up leads to approximate 'adiabatic' conditions, and a longitudinal temperature gradient is predicted across the length of the column. The magnitude of this gradient is calculated, and its occurrence confirmed with experimental measurements also indicating that no appreciable loss in efficiency occurs. Secondly, when a water bath is used to thermostat the column, a radial temperature gradient is prevalent. The extent of this gradient is estimated, and the loss in efficiency associated with this gradient is predicted and demonstrated experimentally. It is also observed that approximate adiabatic conditions can lead to floating retention factors. The implications of temperature gradients for routine HPLC analysis at ultra-high pressure are discussed. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.