True triaxial stresses and the brittle fracture of rock

This paper reviews the efforts made in the last 100 years to characterize the effect of the intermediate principal stress sigma(2) on brittle fracture of rocks, and on their strength criteria. The most common theories of failure in geomechanics, such as those of Coulomb, and Mohr, disregard sigma(2) and are typically based on triaxial testing of cylindrical rock samples subjected to equal minimum and intermediate principal stresses (sigma(3)=sigma(2)). However, as early as 1915 Boker conducted conventional triaxial extension tests (sigma(1)=sigma(2)) on the same Carrara marble tested earlier in conventional triaxial compression by von Karman that showed a different strength behavior. Efforts to incorporate the effect of sigma(2) on rock strength continued in the second half of the last century through the work of Nadai, Drucker and Prager, Murrell, Handin, Wiebols and Cook, and others. In 1971 Mogi designed a high-capacity true triaxial testing machine, and was the first to obtain complete true triaxial strength criteria for several rocks based on experimental data. Following his pioneering work, several other laboratories developed equipment and conducted true triaxial tests revealing the extent of sigma(2) effect on rock strength (e.g., Takahashi and Koide, Michelis, Smart, Wawersik). Testing equipment emulating Mogi's but considerably more compact was developed at the University of Wisconsin and used for true triaxial testing of some very strong crystalline rocks. Test results revealed three distinct compressive failure mechanisms, depending on loading mode and rock type: shear faulting resulting from extensile microcrack localization, multiple splitting along the sigma(1) axis, and nondilatant shear failure. The true triaxial strength criterion for the KTB amphibolite derived from such tests was used in conjunction with logged breakout dimensions to estimate the maximum horizontal in situ stress in the KTB ultra deep scientific hole.