What makes Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems invasible by Bromus tectorum?

Ecosystem susceptibility to invasion by nonnative species is poorly understood, but evidence is increasing that spatial and temporal variability in resources has large-scale effects. We conducted a study in Artemisia tridentata ecosystems at two Great Basin locations examining differences in resource availability and invasibility of Bromus tectorum over elevation gradients and in response to direct and interacting effects of removal of perennial herbaceous vegetation and fire. We monitored environmental conditions, soil variables, and B. tectorum establishment and reproduction over two years. Soil water (measured as the number of days soil matric potential was. >-1.5 MPa) and nitrate availability (measured as micromoles of NO3-sorbed to resin capsules per day in the ground) decreased with decreasing elevation. Lower-elevation sites had greater annual variability in soil water availability than upper-elevation sites did. Soil nitrate levels were highest at all elevations when soils were wettest; nitrate availability was not more variable at lower elevations. Removal of herbaceous perennials increased soil water and nitrate availability, but burning without removal had only minor effects. Bromus tectorum had low establishment, biomass, and seed production on high-elevation sites and on a mid-elevation site during a cold, short, growing season probably due to ecophysiological limitations resulting from cold temperatures. Establishment, biomass, and seed production were variable at low elevations and best explained by soil characteristics and spatial and temporal variation in soil water. Removal and. re had minor effects on emergence and survival, but biomass and seed production increased two to three times following removal, two to six times after burning, and 10-30 times following removal and burning. Our data indicate that invasibility varies across elevation gradients and appears to be closely related to temperature at higher elevations and soil water availability at lower elevations. High variability in soil water and lower average perennial herbaceous cover may increase invasion potential at lower elevations. Soil water and nitrate availability increase following either. re or removal, but on intact sites native perennials typically increase following fire, limiting B. tectorum growth and reproduction. Following resource fluctuations, invasibility is lowest on sites with relatively high cover of perennial herbaceous species (i.e., sites in high ecological condition).