Karlotoxin mediates grazing by Oxyrrhis marina on strains of Karlodinium veneficum

Karlodinium veneficum is a common member of temperate, coastal phytoplankton assemblages that occasionally forms blooms associated with fish kills. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the cytotoxic and ichthyotoxic compounds produced by K. veneficum, karlotoxins, can have anti-grazing properties against the heterotrophic dinollagellate, Oxyrrhis marina. The sterol composition of O. marina (>80% cholesterol) renders it sensitive to karlotoxin, and does not vary substantially when fed different algal diets even for prey that are resistant to karlotoxin. At in situ bloom concentrations (10(4)-10(5) K. veneficum ml(-1) ), grazing rates (cells ingested per Oxyrrhis h(-1)) on toxic K. veneficum strain CCMP 2064 were similar to 55% that observed on the non-toxic K. veneficum strain MD5. At lower prey concentrations typical of in situ non-bloom levels (<10(3) cells ml(-1)), grazing rates (cells ingested per Oxyrrhis h(-1)) on toxic K. veneficum strain CCMP 2064 were 70-80% of rates on non-toxic strain MD5. Growth of O. marina was significantly suppressed when fed the toxic strain of K. veneficum. Experiments with mixed prey cultures, where non-toxic strain MD5 was fluorescently stained, showed that the presence of toxic strain CCMP 2064 inhibited grazing of O. marina on the co-occurring nontoxic strain MD5. Exogenous addition of a sub-lethal dose (100 ng ml(-1)) of purified karlotoxin inhibited grazing of O. marina by approximately 50% on the non-toxic K. veneficum strain MD5 or the cryptophyte S. major. These results identify karlotoxin as an anti-grazing compound for those grazers with appropriate sterol composition (i.e., desmethyl sterols). This strategy is likely to be an important mechanism whereby growth of K. veneficum is uncoupled from losses due to grazing, allowing it to form ichthyotoxic blooms in situ. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.