The pragmatics of connotation

The connotations of a language expression are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and prejudices about the contexts in which the expression is typically used. The connotation of a language expression is clearly distinct from its sense, denotation and reference. For example, Mike and Michael can have the same reference but different connotations. John is an unsuitable name for your new-born daughter; so is Springtime in Paris an inappropriate name for a 1200cc Harley-Davidson motorbike or an auto-repair shop. Identifying the connotations of a term is to identify the community attitude towards it. For instance the connotations of English octopus and the Japanese translation equivalent tako are very different: an octopus is a sinister, alien creature; tako is edible and endearing. Connotation is intimately involved with notions of appropriateness in language use; i.e. with pragmatic effect. For instance, racist dysphemisms occur when a speaker refers to or implicates the hearer or some third person's race, ethnicity, or nationality in such terms as to cause a face affront. Many such 'racist' terms can be disarmed by being used, without irony, as in-group solidarity markers by the targeted group; e.g. the use of nigger/nigga among African Americans. The negative connotations of some existing word often lead to its replacement. Although Jesus Christ! is blasphemous; Gee whiz and By jingo are not. From a purely rational viewpoint, if one of these is blasphemous, then all of them are. But the pragmatic effects, i.e. connotations are different. Connotation is a thoroughly pragmatic category of meaning. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.