Does Stereotype Threat Affect Test Performance of Minorities and Women? A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Evidence

A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of vertical bar.26 vertical bar was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = vertical bar.36 vertical bar and vertical bar.43 vertical bar. respectively, For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = vertical bar.24 vertical bar, vertical bar.18 vertical bar, and vertical bar.17 vertical bar, respectively explicit threat-removal strategies were. more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = vertical bar.14 vertical bar and vertical bar.33 vertical bar, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = vertical bar.64 vertical bar, vertical bar.41 vertical bar, and vertical bar.22 vertical bar, respectively explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = vertical bar.80 vertical bar and vertical bar.34 vertical bar. respectively. In addition, Stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = vertical bar.52 vertical bar and vertical bar.29 vertical bar. respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d = vertical bar.11 vertical bar. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.