Towards a holistic model of functions of music listening across cultures: A culturally decentred qualitative approach

The present article explores the functions of music listening from a cross-cultural perspective. We present a model of functions of music listening based on a multicultural qualitative approach. Our model covers personal, social and cultural musical experiences. Seven main functions of music listening were identified: music in the background, memories through music, music as diversion, emotions and self-regulation through music, music as reflection of self and social bonding through music. Our model was confirmed in an independent sample using a cross-method validation. Quantitative analyses of the qualitative data explored the salience of functions of music listening across four sub-samples: Asian and Latin-American sub-samples being more collectivistic and non- Anglophone Western and Anglophone Western sub-samples being more individualistic. Across all sub-samples the self-regulation function was the most important personal use of music, bonding was the most important social use of music and the expression of cultural identity was the most salient cultural function of music regardless of listeners' cultural background. Apart from these similarities which point towards universalities, we also revealed cross-cultural differences pointing towards culture-specific uses of music. Limitations in the methodology of this exploratory cross-cultural approach and future directions in cross-cultural psychology of music are discussed.