Marine protected areas: Re-thinking their inception

When marine protected areas (MPAs) do not succeed, which is often the case, their failure is mostly attributed to factors related to their design and operation. In this paper, it is argued that reasons for lack of success must be sought in the process that leads up to their establishment, i.e., the initial stage when the idea was conceived, communicated, and discussed among stakeholders. To illustrate the significance of the 'step zero', the creation of four MPAs in Spain and Mexico is analyzed. These case studies show how MPA proposals can easily be drawn not only into power struggles between stakeholders but also into political issues that extend far beyond the MPA itself. For this reason, the governance of MPAs requires broad considerations of the potential political risks and pitfalls. MPAs are, after all, not just a technical management measure, but a socio-political enterprise. Crown Copyright (c) 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.