Convergence and divergence of paternalistic leadership: A cross-cultural investigation of prototypes

Paternalistic leaders provide care, nurturance, and guidance to employees in their professional and personal lives in a parental manner, and, in exchange, expect loyalty and deference from employees. This study aims at investigating how the paternalistic leadership (PL) prototype converges and diverges with prototypes of transformational, authoritarian, participative, and nurturant-task leadership (NTL) in six countries representing high power distance and collectivism (China, Turkey, and Pakistan) and low power distance and individualism (the United States, Germany, and the Netherlands). A total of 1272 employees from six countries participated in this study. Findings revealed that the PL prototype converged more strongly with authoritarian leadership and NTL in hierarchical and collectivistic cultures than in egalitarian and individualistic ones. The relationship of the PL prototype with that of transformational and participative leadership was similar across cultures. Theoretical and managerial implications of these findings for international business are discussed.