Vibrio cholerae Outer Membrane Vesicles Inhibit Bacteriophage Infection

Novel preventatives could help in efforts to limit Vibrio cholerae infection and the spread of cholera. Bacteriophage (phage) treatment has been proposed as an alternative intervention, given the rapid replication of virulent phages, prey specificity, and relative ease of finding new virulent phages. Phage tropism is dictated in part by the presence of phage receptors on the bacterial surface. While many phages that can kill V. cholerae have been isolated, whether this pathogen is able to defend itself by neutralizing phage binding is unknown. Here, we show that secreted outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) act as a defense mechanism that confers protection to V. cholerae against phage predation and that this OMV-mediated inhibition is phage receptor dependent. Our results suggest that phage therapy or prophylaxis should take into consideration the production of OMVs as a bacterial decoy mechanism that could influence the outcome of phage treatment. IMPORTANCE Phages have been increasingly recognized for the significance of their interactions with bacterial cells in multiple environments. Bacteria use myriad strategies to defend against phage infection, including restriction modification, abortive infection, phase variation of cell surface receptors, phage-inducible chromosomal islands, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat(s) (CRISPR)-Cas systems. The data presented here suggest that the apparently passive process of OMV release can also contribute to phage defense. By considering the effect of OMVs on V. cholerae infection by three unique virulent phages, ICP1, ICP2, and ICP3, we show that, in vitro, a reproducible reduction in bacterial killing is both dose and phage receptor dependent. This work supports a role for OMVs as natural decoys to defend bacteria from phage predation.