Modular exaptation: A missing link in the synthesis of artificial form

Exaptation, the cooption of existing technologies for emergent functions, is an important but neglected mechanism for innovation. Exaptation may enable an existing technology to (a) construct a new technological niche, (b) enter into a preexisting niche, or (c) transform the internal architecture of an artifact without changing its function. In this article we analyze the relationship between exaptation and modularity and introduce the concept of modular exaptation. We thereby derive a model of modular exaptation, which leads to a discussion of technological change as a coupled interaction of modular exaptive and adaptive processes. Keypolicy implications close the article. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.