Unintentional exposure to terrestrial pesticides drives widespread and predictable evolution of resistance in freshwater crustaceans

Pesticide runoff from terrestrial environments into waterways is often lethal to freshwater organisms, but exposure may also drive evolution of pesticide resistance. We analyzed the degree of resistance and molecular genetic changes underlying resistance in Hyalella azteca, a species complex of freshwater crustaceans inadvertently exposed to pesticide pollution via runoff. We surveyed 16 waterways encompassing most major watersheds throughout California and found that land use patterns are predictive of both pyrethroid presence in aquatic sediments and pyrethroid resistance in H.azteca. Nonsynonymous amino acid substitutions in the voltage-gated sodium channel including the M918L, L925I, or L925V confer resistance in H.azteca. The most frequently identified mutation, L925I, appears to be preferred within the species complex. The L925V substitution has been associated with pyrethroid resistance in another insect, but is novel in H.azteca. We documented a variety of pyrethroid resistance mutations across several species groups within this complex, indicating that pyrethroid resistance has independently arisen in H.azteca at least six separate times. Further, the high frequency of resistance alleles indicates that pesticide-mediated selection on H.azteca populations in waterways equals or exceeds that of targeted terrestrial pests. Widespread resistance throughout California suggests current practices to mitigate off-site movement of pyrethroids are inadequate to protect aquatic life from negative ecological impacts and implies the likelihood of similar findings globally.