Microcystin-RR: Occurrence, content in water and food and toxicological studies. A review

Microcystins (MCs) are hepatotoxins, produced by various species of cyanobacteria, whose occurrence is increasing worldwide owing to climate change and anthropogenic activities. More than 100 variants have been reported, and among them MC-LR is the most extensively studied, but there are other MC congeners that deserve to be investigated. The need for data to characterize the toxicological profile of MC variants other than MC-LR has been identified in order to improve risk assessment in humans and wildlife. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to evaluate the information available in the scientific literature dealing with MC-RR, as this congener is the second most common cyanotoxin in the environment. The review focuses on aspects such as occurrence in water and food, and toxicity studies both in vitro and in vivo. It reveals that, although MC-RR is a real hazard with a high exposure potential in some countries, little is known yet about its specific toxicological properties that differ from those of MC-LR, and important aspects such as genotoxicity and chronic effects have not yet been sufficiently addressed.