Triplicate parallel life cycle divergence despite gene flow in periodical cicadas

Periodical cicadas comprise three species groups containing three pairs of 13- and 17-year life cycle species showing parallel divergence, along with a more anciently diverged 13-year species (Magicicda tredecim). The mechanism and genetic basis of this parallel divergence is unknown. Here we use orthologous transcriptome sequences to explore the demographic processes and genomic evolution associated with parallel life cycle divergence. The three 13- and 17-year species pairs have similar demographic histories, and the two life cycles diverged 200,000-100,000 years ago. Interestingly, these life cycle differences have been maintained despite substantial gene flow between 13- and 17-year species within species groups, which is possible during co-emergences. Sequence divergence between 13- and 17-year species in each species group (excluding M. tredecim) is minimal, and we find no shared divergent single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or loci associated with all instances of life cycle divergence. The two life cycles may be controlled by highly limited genomic differences.