Impediments to the bus rapid transit implementation in developing countries - a typical evidence from Hanoi

Creation of an effective bus rapid transit (BRT) system has never been an easy task, especially for the first case in a developing country, since a BRT project requires a considerable investment with participation from most walks of life. Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, has omitted to overcome impediments in the maiden BRT establishment. The Hanoi BRT performs poorly with ridership at only 13,500 passengers per day. In this paper, it is scrutinized based on a series of barriers that are findings in previous works and in the shape of a theoretical framework with seven main categories, namely: (1) institutional and legislative context, (2) political leadership and commitment, (3) physical design and operation, (4) management of competing modes, (5) adequate funding, (6) public participation and (7) image promotion. Results emphasize that the difference in views of the funder and the local authorities on the BRT development is the chief barrier. Enforcement of the BRT lanes from motorcycles is demanding, which is distinct from cities previously creating BRT. The findings from the Hanoi BRT are not unique. Lessons drawn from its failure could be widely informative for the BRT establishment in a number of cities with similar contexts.