Contributions of dietary, demographic, disease, lifestyle and other factors in explaining variabilities in concentrations of selected monohydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urine: Data for US children, adolescents, and adults

Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2003-2014 for US children aged 6-11 years (N = 2097), adolescents aged 12-19 ears (N = 2642), and adults aged >= 20 years (N = 9170) were analyzed to investigate the effects of dietary, demographic, disease, lifestyle, and other factors on concentrations of nine metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in urine. PAHs analyzed were: 1-hydroxynap hthalene, 2-hyd roxynaphthalene, 2-hyd roxyfluorene, 3-hyd roxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 1-hydroxypyrene. Adults with diabetes were found to have higher adjusted levels of 1-hydroxynaphthalene (4139 vs. 3622 ng/L, p < 0.01) than nondiabetics. Adults with albuminuria had higher adjusted levels of 1-hydroxynaphthalene (4140 vs.3621 ng/L p < 0.01) and 2-hydroxynaphthalene (6039 vs. 5468 ng/L, p < 0.01) than those without albuminuria. Children with albuminuria had lower adjusted levels of 9-hydroxyfluorene (162 vs. 187 ng/L, p = 0.04), 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (92 vs. 108 ng/ L, p < 0.01), and 1-hydroxypyrene (118 vs. 138 ng/L, p < 0.01) than those without albuminuria. The ratios of smoker to nonsmoker adjusted levels for adults varied from a low of 1.4 for 2-hydroxyphenanthrene to a high of 5.6 for 3-hydroxyfluorene. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at home was associated with higher levels of most OH-PAHs among children, adolescents, and adults. Consumption of red meat not processed at high temperatures was associated with increased levels of 1-hydroxypyrene (beta = 0.00040, p = 0.01), 1-, 2-, and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-, and 9-hydroxyfluorene. Consumption of red meat processed at high temperatures was associated with increased levels of 2-hydroxynaphthalene (beta = 0.00046, p = 0.02) among adults. Consumption of fish processed at high temperatures was associated with decreased levels of 1-hydroxynaphtahlene (beta = - 0.00088, p < 0.01), 2-, 3-, and 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-, 2-, and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene. Among adults, alcohol consumption and caffeine may be associated with increased levels of certain OH-PAHs. Oxidative stress and inflammation associated with exposure to PAHs are associated with albuminuria and have the potential to lead to the development of diabetes. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.