Ecotoxicological Properties of Ketoprofen and the S(+)-Enantiomer (Dexketoprofen): Bioassays in Freshwater Model Species and Biomarkers in Fish PLHC-1 Cell Line

The increased use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) has resulted in their ubiquitous presence in the environment. The toxicological properties of these 2 widely prescribed NSAIDs, namely racemic ketoprofen and its enantiomer S(+)-ketoprofen (dexketoprofen), were evaluated, firstly, by acute and chronic toxicity tests using 3 representative model organisms (Vibrio fischeri, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, and Ceriodaphnia dubia) and, secondly, by evaluating the responses of biotransformation systems and multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRP1/MRP2) using the Poeciliopsis lucida hepatocellular carcinoma 1 (PLHC-1) fish hepatic cell line. Toxicity data from both acute and chronic dexketoprofen exposure indicated higher sensitivity through inhibition of bioluminescence and algal growth and through increased mortality/immobilization compared to racemic ketoprofen exposure. The growth inhibition test showed that racemic ketoprofen and dexketoprofen exhibited different effect concentration values (240.2 and 65.6 mu g/L, respectively). Furthermore, racemic ketoprofen and dexketoprofen did not exert cytotoxic effects in PLHC-1 cells and produced compound-, time-, and concentration-specific differential effects on cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) and glutathione S-transferase levels. For CYP1A, the effects of racemic ketoprofen and dexketoprofen differed at the transcriptional and catalytic levels. Exposure to racemic ketoprofen and dexketoprofen modulated MRP1 and MRP2 mRNA levels, and these effects were also dependent on compound, exposure time, and concentration of the individual drug. The present study revealed for the first time the interactions between these NSAIDs and key detoxification systems and different sensitivity to the racemic mixture compared to its enantiomer. (C) 2017 SETAC