An inflammatory response is essential for the development of adaptive immunity-immunogenicity and immunotoxicity

The humoral and cellular immune responses of adaptive immunity are induced following immunization with effective vaccines. They induce functional cytokines and chemokines through the binding of vaccine components or adjuvants to innate immune receptors. Alum-adjuvanted vaccines induce local inflammatory nodules at injection sites, and the systemic and local production of the inflammatory cytokines, IL-1 beta, IL-alpha, and TNF-a, has been reported to occur three hours after vaccinations. Furthermore, G-CSF levels increase at injection sites. Neutrophils initially migrate and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) then develop, which stimulate damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), inducing inflammatory cytokines production. Approximately 10-15% of recipients of simultaneous immunizations with multiple vaccines develop febrile reactions, and have higher G-CSF levels. Innate immune responses following vaccinations are discussed herein. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.