Oceanic dispersal, vicariance and human introduction shaped the modern distribution of the termites Reticulitermes, Heterotermes and Coptotermes

Reticulitermes, Heterotermes and Coptotermes form a small termite Glade with partly overlapping distributions. Although native species occur across all continents, the factors influencing their distribution are poorly known. Here, we reconstructed the historical biogeography of these termites using mitochondrial genomes of species collected on six continents: Our analyses showed that Reticulitermes split from Heterotermes + Coptotermes at 59.5 Ma (49.9-69.5 Ma 95% CI), yet the oldest split within Reticulitermes (Eurasia and North America) is 16.1 Ma (13.4-19.5 Ma) and the oldest split within Heterotermes + Coptotermes is 36.0 Ma (33.9-40.5 Ma). We detected 14 disjunctions between biogeographical realms, all of which occurred within the last 34 Ma, not only after the break-up of Pangaea, but also with the continents in similar to current positions. Land dispersal over land bridges explained four disjunction, oceanic dispersal by wood rafting explained eight disjunction, and human introduction was the source of two recent disjunction. These wood-eating termites, therefore, appear to have-acquired their modem worldwide distribution through multiple dispersal processes, with oceanic dispersal and human introduction favoured by the ecological traits of nesting in wood and producing replacement reproductives.