4.7 Review

Rehabilitation: Neurogenic Bone Loss after Spinal Cord Injury

Related references

Note: Only part of the references are listed.
Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Treatment Modalities for Bone Loss in SCI- Proposal for Combined Approach

Rajiv Dharnipragada et al.

Summary: Increased risk of bone fracture is a serious consequence of spinal cord injury (SCI) due to bone mineral density (BMD) loss. Traditional pharmaceutical approaches have been used to prevent bone loss, but their efficacy in mitigating bone loss following SCI is controversial. Functional electric stimulation (FES) provides an alternative treatment option, such as cycling and rowing exercises, which show promising outcomes with minimal consequences. These non-pharmacological treatments can also improve overall physical and mental health. This article advocates for a combined approach in standard care for SCI patients.

JOURNAL OF CLINICAL DENSITOMETRY (2023)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Loss of lower extremity bone mineral density 1 year after denosumab is discontinued in persons with subacute spinal cord injury

Christopher M. M. Cirnigliaro et al.

Summary: In participants with subacute spinal cord injury, the decrease in bone mineral density after discontinuation of denosumab was similar between the denosumab and placebo groups. This highlights the importance of additional trials to understand the effect of continued administration of denosumab after subacute SCI in order to prevent demineralization.

OSTEOPOROSIS INTERNATIONAL (2023)

Review Clinical Neurology

Bisphosphonates Alleviate Bone Loss in People with Acute Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Zijian Ma et al.

Summary: In this meta-analysis of 7 randomized controlled trials, bisphosphonates were found to effectively alleviate bone loss in patients with acute spinal cord injury, particularly in the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip. Early application of bisphosphonates is recommended.

WORLD NEUROSURGERY (2023)

Article Rehabilitation

Handrim Wheelchair Propulsion Technique in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury With and Without Shoulder Pain

Jelmer Braaksma et al.

Summary: This study compares the handrim wheelchair propulsion technique between individuals with spinal cord injury with and without shoulder pain. The results show that individuals with shoulder pain have different kinematic parameters during propulsion compared to those without shoulder pain, possibly as a pain-avoiding mechanism.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL MEDICINE & REHABILITATION (2023)

Article Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology

Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and immunogenicity of recombinant, fully human anti-RANKL monoclonal antibody (MW031) versus denosumab in Chinese healthy subjects: a single-center, randomized, double-blind, single-dose, parallel-controlled trial

Yinhan Guo et al.

Summary: This study aimed to compare the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and immunogenicity of MW031 to denosumab in healthy Chinese participants. The results showed that MW031 and denosumab had similar pharmacokinetic profiles, pharmacodynamic profiles, safety profiles, and immunogenicity.

EXPERT OPINION ON BIOLOGICAL THERAPY (2023)

Article Clinical Neurology

Denervation impacts muscle quality and knee bone mineral density after spinal cord injury

Ahmad M. Alazzam et al.

Summary: This study compared muscle size, body composition, bone mineral density, and metabolic profiles in denervated versus innervated individuals with spinal cord injury. The results showed that denervated individuals had smaller muscle size, higher muscle intramuscular fat, and lower bone mineral density. These findings suggest that denervation exacerbates muscle atrophy and changes in body composition in spinal cord injury patients.

SPINAL CORD (2023)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Chronic intermittent hypobaric hypoxia ameliorates osteoporosis after spinal cord injury through balancing osteoblast and osteoclast activities in rats

Li Zhang et al.

Summary: This study demonstrated that chronic intermittent hypobaric hypoxia (CIHH) treatment ameliorates osteoporosis after spinal cord injury (SCI) by balancing osteoblast and osteoclast activities in rats. CIHH treatment can effectively improve bone density and structure in SCI rats. This may be achieved by enhancing the activity of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) signaling pathway.

FRONTIERS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY (2023)

Review Health Care Sciences & Services

The Pathophysiology, Identification and Management of Fracture Risk, Sublesional Osteoporosis and Fracture among Adults with Spinal Cord Injury

Beverley Catharine Craven et al.

Summary: Preventing lower extremity fractures and associated morbidity and mortality in adults with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) is crucial. Recent international consensus documents provide established best practices and guidelines for screening, diagnosing, and treating low bone mass and fractures among these individuals. The guidance includes recommendations for dietary supplements, rehabilitation interventions, and orthopedic consultation to prevent complications and promote functional recovery.

JOURNAL OF PERSONALIZED MEDICINE (2023)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Alteration of Volumetric Bone Mineral Density Parameters in Men with Spinal Cord Injury

Laurent Maimoun et al.

Summary: Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to significant loss of trabecular and cortical volumetric bone density (vBMD) that cannot be identified by conventional dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) analysis. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of SCI on areal BMD (aBMD) and vBMD using advanced 3D-DXA-based methods and to model the profiles of 3D-DXA-derived parameters over time since injury. The results showed that SCI patients had lower vBMD, cortical thickness, and bone strength parameters compared to able-bodied controls. These differences were more pronounced for cortical vBMD than trabecular vBMD, and there were minor variations according to the lesion level. The decreasing bone parameters tended to reach a new steady state after several years following SCI.

CALCIFIED TISSUE INTERNATIONAL (2023)

Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

The Effects of Exercise and Activity-Based Physical Therapy on Bone after Spinal Cord Injury

Tommy W. Sutor et al.

Summary: Spinal cord injury causes paralysis and osteoporosis, increasing fracture risk. Physical rehabilitation regimens for patients with severe SCI have limited evidence in influencing bone metabolism or increasing bone mineral density.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SCIENCES (2022)

Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Osteoporosis Due to Hormone Imbalance: An Overview of the Effects of Estrogen Deficiency and Glucocorticoid Overuse on Bone Turnover

Chu-Han Cheng et al.

Summary: This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms, risk factors, and treatment methods for estrogen deficiency related osteoporosis (EDOP) and glucocorticoid induced osteoporosis (GIOP) in postmenopausal women. Estrogen deficiency leads to increased bone resorption and decreased bone formation, while excessive glucocorticoid usage interferes with bone remodeling and promotes bone resorption. Treatment for EDOP and GIOP includes avoiding excessive glucocorticoid use and appropriate estrogen supplementation.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SCIENCES (2022)

Article Clinical Neurology

Preventive treatment with alendronate of loss of bone mineral density in acute traumatic spinal cord injury. Randomized controlled clinical trial

Maria Teresa Fernandez Dorado et al.

Summary: This randomized controlled clinical trial aimed to analyze the efficacy of alendronate in preventing bone loss during the first year of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). The results showed that alendronate administered within 8 weeks of SCI reduced hip bone loss in men, and the treatment was well tolerated.

SPINAL CORD (2022)

Article Materials Science, Biomaterials

Recent and Future Strategies of Mechanotherapy for Tissue Regenerative Rehabilitation

Bo Ri Seo et al.

Summary: Mechanotherapy, the application of mechanical forces on injured or diseased tissue, is a viable option for tissue regenerative rehabilitation. Recent advances in tissue engineering and soft robotic technologies have enabled systematic and controlled studies to demonstrate the therapeutic impacts of mechanical stimulation on injured tissue. Moving forward, innovations in actuation systems and analysis methods will expand our understanding of how mechanical cues influence biological responses, leading to the development of diverse mechanotherapy therapies.

ACS BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING (2022)

Article Biology

Osteopenia in a Mouse Model of Spinal Cord Injury: Effects of Age, Sex and Motor Function

Michelle A. Hook et al.

Summary: Bone loss after spinal cord injury significantly affects rehabilitation and increases the risk of fractures and complications. While injury, age, and sex independently increase bone loss, their cumulative effects remain unclear. Aging reduces bone volume, and spinal injury also reduces bone volume, but does not worsen the effects of age. Partial weight-bearing does not reduce bone loss, but therapies that simulate full weight-bearing may be effective.

BIOLOGY-BASEL (2022)

Article

The role of Wnt/mTOR signaling in spinal cord injury

Peng Cheng et al.

Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma (2022)

Article Immunology

Adiponectin regulates electroacupuncture-produced analgesic effects in association with a crosstalk between the peripheral circulation and the spinal cord

Zhipeng Ning et al.

Summary: This study revealed a novel mechanism that acupuncture produces analgesic effects at least partially via the APN/AdipoR2-AMPK pathway in the spinal cord. The deletion of APN significantly reduced the acupuncture analgesia, while intrathecal administration of APN mimicked the analgesic effects of acupuncture. The study suggests that acupuncture may increase APN accumulation in the spinal cord through the blood circulation.

BRAIN BEHAVIOR AND IMMUNITY (2022)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

Supplemental Vitamin D and Incident Fractures in Midlife and Older Adults

Meryl S. LeBoff et al.

Summary: The study found that supplementing with vitamin D3 does not significantly reduce the risk of fractures in generally healthy middle-aged and older adults, regardless of total, nonvertebral, or hip fractures.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2022)

Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Causal relationships between sex hormone traits, lifestyle factors, and osteoporosis in men: A Mendelian randomization study

Hui Wang et al.

Summary: This study utilized Mendelian randomization analysis to identify causal risk factors associated with bone mineral density (BMD) in men. Genetic evidence among sex hormone traits, lifestyle factors, and BMD was found, providing novel insights into the risk factors for osteoporosis in male European populations.

PLOS ONE (2022)

Review Clinical Neurology

Management and Outcomes of Traumatic Pediatric Spinal Cord Injuries in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Scoping Review

David Ulrich Dalle et al.

Summary: This scoping review focused on the management and outcomes of pediatric TSCI in LMICs, revealing a scarcity of studies and a lack of long-term management data, which hinders the ability to draw strong conclusions and develop guidelines for best practice.

WORLD NEUROSURGERY (2022)

Review Cell Biology

Spinal cord injury-induced cognitive impairment: a narrative review

Oscar Alcantar-Garibay et al.

Summary: Spinal cord injury is a serious condition that can lead to lifelong disability. It can be classified into traumatic and non-traumatic types, and has primary and secondary injury phases. The secondary phase, which lasts for weeks or months, is characterized by pro-inflammatory processes and can result in cognitive impairment.

NEURAL REGENERATION RESEARCH (2022)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

Notoginsenoside R1 alleviates spinal cord injury through the miR-301a/KLF7 axis to activate Wnt/β-catenin pathway

Zhi Tang et al.

Summary: The study found that Notoginsenoside R1 (NGR1) can reduce inflammation and apoptosis, and promote functional recovery in spinal cord injury (SCI) rats by activating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

OPEN MEDICINE (2022)

Review Cell & Tissue Engineering

Versatile subtypes of pericytes and their roles in spinal cord injury repair, bone development and repair

Sipin Zhu et al.

Summary: Vascular regeneration and bone development rely on the important role of pericytes, but distinguishing different subtypes of pericytes remains a challenge. This review discusses the biology, markers, and differentiation capacity of pericytes, with a focus on their potential applications in the treatment of spinal cord injury and bone diseases in orthopedics.

BONE RESEARCH (2022)

Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Wnt/β-catenin signalling: function, biological mechanisms, and therapeutic opportunities

Jiaqi Liu et al.

Summary: This article provides a comprehensive review of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, including its origin, composition, function, and clinical trials. It also discusses the challenges and opportunities for developing small-molecule compounds targeting this signaling pathway in disease treatment.

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION AND TARGETED THERAPY (2022)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Musculoskeletal morbidity following spinal cord injury: A longitudinal cohort study of privately-insured beneficiaries

Gianna Rodriguez et al.

Summary: Individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) have a significantly higher incidence of common musculoskeletal morbidities and risk compared to those without SCIs. Efforts are needed to develop improved clinical screening algorithms and early interventions to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disease onset/progression in this higher risk population.
Article Pharmacology & Pharmacy

Pharmacological approaches for bone health in persons with spinal cord injury

William A. Bauman

Summary: Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to rapid and significant skeletal deterioration below the level of neurological lesion. Current therapeutic approaches such as bisphosphonates and denosumab can help preserve bone mineral density, but there is limited protection for knee bone density. Further research is needed to explore novel methods for bone preservation during acute SCI, as well as strategies to reverse bone loss in individuals with chronic SCI.

CURRENT OPINION IN PHARMACOLOGY (2021)

Article Clinical Neurology

The neuroanatomical-functional paradox in spinal cord injury

Karim Fouad et al.

Summary: Lesion size is considered a reliable predictor of outcome after central nervous system injury, but lesions of comparable size can lead to different levels of functional impairment and recovery, contributing to failed replication in animal models. A clinical-radiological paradox may explain why individuals with similar injuries respond differently to rehabilitation in humans.

NATURE REVIEWS NEUROLOGY (2021)

Article Cell & Tissue Engineering

Overloaded Orthopedic Force Induces Condylar Subchondral Bone Absorption by Stimulating Mesenchymal Stem Cells Differentiating into Osteoclasts Through Mammalian Target of Rapamycin-Regulated RANKL/OPG Secretion in Osteoblasts

Yihong Tian et al.

Summary: This study demonstrated that overloaded orthopedic force (OOF) resulted in condylar bone absorption, with osteoclastogenesis prevailing over osteogenesis. In vivo experiments showed significant changes in condylar structure, and immunofluorescent labeling indicated activation of both osteoclasts and osteoblasts by OOF. In vitro, mechanical overload upregulated mTOR and RANKL/OPG ratio, promoting mesenchymal stem cells differentiation into osteoclasts.

STEM CELLS AND DEVELOPMENT (2021)

Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

The Relationship Between Bone and Reproductive Hormones Beyond Estrogens and Androgens

Edouard G. Mills et al.

Summary: Reproductive hormones play a key role in the growth and maintenance of mammalian skeleton, impacting bone density and risk of fractures. Recent research on traditional reproductive hormones as well as new reproductive neuro peptides and hormones has enhanced our understanding of the interaction between bone and the reproductive system.

ENDOCRINE REVIEWS (2021)

Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Activation of 4-1BB signaling in bone marrow stromal cells triggers bone loss via the p-38 MAPK-DKK1 axis in aged mice

Daqian Wan et al.

Summary: Senile osteoporosis, affecting the elderly population, is caused by abnormal changes in bone marrow stromal cells and signaling pathways in the bone marrow microenvironment. Elevated levels of 4-1BB in aged mice inhibit osteogenic differentiation, leading to bone loss, which can be rescued by blocking the 4-1BB signaling pathway. These findings suggest a potential therapeutic target for age-related trabecular bone loss.

EXPERIMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MEDICINE (2021)

Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

The Pathophysiology of Osteoporosis after Spinal Cord Injury

Ramsha Shams et al.

Summary: Spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to osteoporosis, possibly due to neuronal impairment and upregulation of RANKL causing bone resorption, while estrogen may protect bones by decreasing the upregulation of RANKL.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SCIENCES (2021)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

Bone Mineral Density at the Distal Femur and Proximal Tibia and Related Factors During the First Year of Spinal Cord Injury

Xin Zheng et al.

Summary: This study found that bone mineral density (BMD) at the distal femur (DF), proximal tibia (PT), and hip in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients significantly decreased during the first year post-injury, with the most rapid loss occurring at the PT and DF compared to the hip. Age, gender, and 25OHD were identified as influencing factors on BMD levels.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GENERAL MEDICINE (2021)

Article Physiology

Bone loss after severe spinal cord injury coincides with reduced bone formation and precedes bone blood flow deficits

Joshua F. Yarrow et al.

Summary: For the first time, it has been shown that reduced blood flow in the femur and tibia occurs in conscious rats after severe contusion spinal cord injury (SCI), leading to severe bone microstructural deterioration.

JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY (2021)

Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Astrocytes directly clear myelin debris through endocytosis pathways and followed by excessive gliosis after spinal cord injury

Song Wang et al.

BIOCHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS (2020)

Review Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology

RANKL/RANK/OPG Pathway: A Mechanism Involved in Exercise-Induced Bone Remodeling

Mohammad Tobeiha et al.

BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL (2020)

Review Neurosciences

Dissecting the Dual Role of the Glial Scar and Scar-Forming Astrocytes in Spinal Cord Injury

Tuo Yang et al.

FRONTIERS IN CELLULAR NEUROSCIENCE (2020)

Editorial Material Geriatrics & Gerontology

Osteosarcopenia: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment-facts and numbers

Ben Kirk et al.

JOURNAL OF CACHEXIA SARCOPENIA AND MUSCLE (2020)

Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Treatment of spinal cord injury with mesenchymal stem cells

Ling Ling Liau et al.

CELL AND BIOSCIENCE (2020)

Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

The Effect of Physical Activity on Bone Biomarkers in People With Osteoporosis: A Systematic Review

Sofia Marini et al.

FRONTIERS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY (2020)

Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Ellagic acid blocks RANKL-RANK interaction and suppresses RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting RANK signaling pathways

Huanhuan Xu et al.

CHEMICO-BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS (2020)

Article Medicine, Research & Experimental

Osteoclast-derived IGF1 is required for pageticlesion formation in vivo

Kazuaki Miyagawa et al.

JCI INSIGHT (2020)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Longitudinal Examination of Bone Loss in Male Rats After Moderate-Severe Contusion Spinal Cord Injury

Dana M. Otzel et al.

CALCIFIED TISSUE INTERNATIONAL (2019)

Review Clinical Neurology

Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: An Overview of Pathophysiology, Models and Acute Injury Mechanisms

Arsalan Alizadeh et al.

FRONTIERS IN NEUROLOGY (2019)

Review Clinical Neurology

Therapeutic Potential of Wnt-3a in Neurological Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury

Kai Gao et al.

EUROPEAN NEUROLOGY (2019)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Parathyroid hormone reference ranges in healthy individuals classified by vitamin D status

N. Yalla et al.

JOURNAL OF ENDOCRINOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION (2019)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Laboratory evaluation of secondary causes of bone loss in Veterans with spinal cord injury and disorders

B. Le et al.

OSTEOPOROSIS INTERNATIONAL (2019)

Article Engineering, Biomedical

Mechanical loading induced osteocyte apoptosis and connexin 43 expression in three-dimensional cell culture and dental implant model

Yoko Takemura et al.

JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL MATERIALS RESEARCH PART A (2019)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Adiponectin Reduces Bone Stiffness: Verified in a Three-Dimensional Artificial Human Bone Model In Vitro

Sigrid Haugen et al.

FRONTIERS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY (2018)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

The Activity of Adiponectin in Bone

Dorit Naot et al.

CALCIFIED TISSUE INTERNATIONAL (2017)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

The Simultaneous Inhibitory Effect of Niclosamide on RANKL-Induced Osteoclast Formation and Osteoblast Differentiation

Fei-Lan Liu et al.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES (2017)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

Traumatic spinal cord injury

Christopher S. Ahuja et al.

NATURE REVIEWS DISEASE PRIMERS (2017)

Review Immunology

Deciphering CD137 (4-1BB) signaling in T-cell costimulation for translation into successful cancer immunotherapy

Alfonso R. Sanchez-Paulete et al.

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2016)

Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Wnt signaling in bone and muscle

Michael A. Rudnicki et al.

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Risk factors for the development of osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. A 12-month follow-up study

L. Gifre et al.

OSTEOPOROSIS INTERNATIONAL (2015)

Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Bone Imaging and Fracture Risk after Spinal Cord Injury

W. Brent Edwards et al.

CURRENT OSTEOPOROSIS REPORTS (2015)

Article Medicine, General & Internal

Pharmacological management of osteogenesis

Valeria Nardone et al.

CLINICS (2014)

Article Medicine, Research & Experimental

Inhibition of osteoclast bone resorption activity through osteoprotegerin-induced damage of the sealing zone

Ruilong Song et al.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR MEDICINE (2014)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Mortality After Lower Extremity Fractures in Men With Spinal Cord Injury

Laura D. Carbone et al.

JOURNAL OF BONE AND MINERAL RESEARCH (2014)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Adiponectin is associated with bone strength and fracture history in paralyzed men with spinal cord injury

C. O. Tan et al.

OSTEOPOROSIS INTERNATIONAL (2014)

Article Obstetrics & Gynecology

Musculoskeletal ageing and primary prevention

Anders Nedergaard et al.

BEST PRACTICE & RESEARCH CLINICAL OBSTETRICS & GYNAECOLOGY (2013)

Article Clinical Neurology

Spinal Cord Injury Facts and Figures at a Glance

JOURNAL OF SPINAL CORD MEDICINE (2013)

Review Physiology

SATELLITE CELLS AND THE MUSCLE STEM CELL NICHE

Hang Yin et al.

PHYSIOLOGICAL REVIEWS (2013)

Article Critical Care Medicine

Bone Loss following Spinal Cord Injury in a Rat Model

Michael J. Voor et al.

JOURNAL OF NEUROTRAUMA (2012)

Review Rheumatology

Pathophysiology of bone loss in disuse osteoporosis

Christian Alexandre et al.

JOINT BONE SPINE (2011)

Article Clinical Neurology

An effective oral vitamin D replacement therapy in persons with spinal cord injury

William A. Bauman et al.

JOURNAL OF SPINAL CORD MEDICINE (2011)

Article Pathology

RANK signalling in bone lesions with osteoclast-like giant cells

Kyu Yeoun Won et al.

PATHOLOGY (2011)

Review Public, Environmental & Occupational Health

Epidemiology of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: Comparisons Between Developed and Developing Countries

Wen-Ta Chiu et al.

ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH (2010)

Article Clinical Neurology

Acute Suppression of Bone Turnover With Calcium Infusion in Persons With Spinal Cord Injury

William A. Bauman et al.

JOURNAL OF SPINAL CORD MEDICINE (2009)

Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Osteoporotic fractures and hospitalization risk in chronic spinal cord injury

L. R. Morse et al.

OSTEOPOROSIS INTERNATIONAL (2009)

Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Osteoporosis in men

Sundeep Khosla et al.

ENDOCRINE REVIEWS (2008)

Article Critical Care Medicine

Improvements in Orthostatic Instability with Stand Locomotor Training in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury

Susan J. Harkema et al.

JOURNAL OF NEUROTRAUMA (2008)

Review Medicine, General & Internal

Bisphosphonates: Mechanism of action and role in clinical practice

Mathew T. Drake et al.

MAYO CLINIC PROCEEDINGS (2008)

Article Pediatrics

Bisphosphonates: Mode of action and pharmacology

R. Graham G. Russell

PEDIATRICS (2007)

Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

CD137 is expressed on blood vessel walls at sites of inflammation and enhances monocyte migratory activity

Daniela Drenkard et al.

FASEB JOURNAL (2007)

Article Rehabilitation

A demographic profile of new traumatic spinal cord injuries: Change and stability over 30 years

AB Jackson et al.

ARCHIVES OF PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND REHABILITATION (2004)