A Narrative Review on CD44's Role in Glioblastoma Invasion, Proliferation, and Tumor Recurrence

Simple Summary As recurrence in glioblastoma is locally generated around the resection cavity, surviving glioma stem-like cells may cause recurrence. Glioma stem-like cells expressing high levels of CD44 are highly invasive and are required to change to less invasive, more proliferative types to generate a recurrent tumor. CD44 promotes both the invasion and proliferation of tumor cells via various signaling pathways. Among these, paired pathways show reciprocal activation of invasion and proliferation under different conditions of oxygenation. Severe hypoxia activates genes related to cell invasion, whereas moderate hypoxia activates genes related to cell proliferation. CD44 is associated with both pathways and plays a critical role in regulating the balance between the promotion of cell invasion and cell proliferation. These results may indicate that CD44 is a key molecule for executing tumor recurrence in glioblastoma.Abstract High invasiveness is a characteristic of glioblastoma (GBM), making radical resection almost impossible, and thus, resulting in a tumor with inevitable recurrence. GBM recurrence may be caused by glioma stem-like cells (GSCs) that survive many kinds of therapy. GSCs with high expression levels of CD44 are highly invasive and resistant to radio-chemotherapy. CD44 is a multifunctional molecule that promotes the invasion and proliferation of tumor cells via various signaling pathways. Among these, paired pathways reciprocally activate invasion and proliferation under different hypoxic conditions. Severe hypoxia (0.5-2.5% O2) upregulates hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 alpha, which then activates target genes, including CD44, TGF-beta, and cMET, all of which are related to tumor migration and invasion. In contrast, moderate hypoxia (2.5-5% O2) upregulates HIF-2 alpha, which activates target genes, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/VEGFR2, cMYC, and cyclin D1. All these genes are related to tumor proliferation. Oxygen environments around GBM can change before and after tumor resection. Before resection, the oxygen concentration at the tumor periphery is severely hypoxic. In the reparative stage after resection, the resection cavity shows moderate hypoxia. These observations suggest that upregulated CD44 under severe hypoxia may promote the migration and invasion of tumor cells. Conversely, when tumor resection leads to moderate hypoxia, upregulated HIF-2 alpha activates HIF-2 alpha target genes. The phenotypic transition regulated by CD44, leading to a dichotomy between invasion and proliferation according to hypoxic conditions, may play a crucial role in GBM recurrence.

Automated summary

Recurrence in glioblastoma may be caused by surviving glioma stem-like cells expressing high levels of CD44, which promote invasion and proliferation of tumor cells via various signaling pathways. Severe hypoxia activates genes related to cell invasion, whereas moderate hypoxia activates genes related to cell proliferation.