The size distribution metrics and kinetic energy of raindrops above and below an isolated tree canopy in urban environment

Raindrop impact on bare soils is the initial phase of rainfall-induced soil erosion which is altered under any type of vegetation due to the interactions of rainfall with the canopies. This study examines the drop size distribution (DSD) and kinetic energy (KE) of raindrops above and below the birch tree (Betula pendula Roth.) canopy in a research plot in the city of Ljubljana, Slovenia using a one-year observation of 63 rainfall events and the effect of meteorological variables under moderate continental climate. Simultaneous measurement of the microstructures of open rainfall and throughfall was carried out using an optical disdrometer. The result of our analysis revealed that throughfall DSD showed two distinct major peaks (bimodal) occurring primarily on smaller drop sizes while open rainfall has only one. The cumulative drop number, median drop-volume diameter (D50), and drop fall velocity of throughfall were 16.4%, 26.6%, and 5.0% lower than those of open rainfall, respectively. Also, the relative volume percentage of raindrops > 1.5 mm is 1.5 times higher than those observed in throughfall drops which indicates that the presence of the canopy caused the fractionation of larger drops into smaller droplets. These reductions significantly differ depending on the phenoseasons of the canopy with the leafed state being higher than the leafless state. Similarly, the Kruskal-Wallis H test result revealed that birch tree elicits a sta-tistically significant change in the kinetic energy of open rainfall, thus weakening the mean rainfall KE by 33.7%. On the other hand, KE is positively affected by the phenological condition of the canopy with higher attenuation being observed during its leafed state. Also, the correlation analysis demonstrated that vapor pressure deficit, air temperature, and relative humidity have stronger associations with throughfall kinetic energy among meteo-rological variables considered. These findings underscore the necessity of an optimized selection of tree species for afforestation programs.

Automated summary

Raindrop impact on bare soils is the initial phase of rainfall-induced soil erosion, but this process is altered by vegetation. This study observed the drop size distribution and kinetic energy of raindrops above and below birch tree canopies in a research plot in Ljubljana, Slovenia for one year, and analyzed the effects of meteorological variables. The results showed that throughfall had two distinct peaks in drop size distribution, mainly occurring on smaller drops, while open rainfall only had one peak. The cumulative drop number, median drop-volume diameter, and drop fall velocity of throughfall were lower than those of open rainfall. The presence of the canopy caused the fractionation of larger drops into smaller droplets. The study also found that the birch tree significantly changed the kinetic energy of open rainfall, weakening it by 33.7%. The phenological condition of the canopy affected the kinetic energy, with higher attenuation during the leafed state. Vapor pressure deficit, air temperature, and relative humidity had stronger associations with throughfall kinetic energy. These findings highlight the importance of selecting appropriate tree species for afforestation programs.