Carotenoid accumulation in copepods is related to lipid metabolism and reproduction rather than to UV-protection

Accumulation of carotenoid pigments in copepods has often been described as a plastic adaptation providing photoprotection against ultraviolet radiation (UVR). However, reports of seasonal carotenoid maxima in winter, when UVR is low, challenge the proposed driving role of UVR. Therefore, we here evaluate the mechanistic connection between UVR and the seasonal pattern of copepod carotenoid pigmentation. We assessed the carotenoids, fatty acid content and reproduction of Leptodiaptomus minutus along with UVR exposure, water temperature, phytoplankton pigments, and fish predation in a boreal lake during 18 months covering two winter seasons. The predominant carotenoid astaxanthin occurred in free form as well as esterified with fatty acids. Mono-and diesters accounted for 62-93% of total astaxanthin and varied seasonally in close correlation with fatty acids. The seasonal variability in total astaxanthin content of the copepods was characterized by net accumulation in late fall of up to 0.034 mu g (mg dry mass)(-1) d(-1), which led to the mid-winter maximum of 3.89 +/- 0.31 mu g mg(-1). The two periods of net loss (-0.018 mu g mg(-1) d(-1) and -0.021 mu g mg(-1) d(-1)) coincided with peaks of egg production in spring and summer leading to minimum astaxanthin content (0.86 +/- 0.03 mu g mg(-1)) in fall. This period was also characterized by the highest predation pressure by young-of-the-year fish. The results suggest that accumulation of astaxanthin in copepods is strongly related to lipid metabolism but not to UVR-photoprotection, and that seasonal changes of fatty acids and carotenoids are related to the reproduction cycle.