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Summary: In this study, the rate of reinfection by SARS-CoV-2 over a two-year period of the COVID-19 pandemic was estimated in a large cohort of healthcare workers. It was found that approximately 5% (284 cases) of symptomatic cases experienced reinfection, with the majority occurring during the Omicron variant period. All cases of reinfection were mild.
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Summary: This systematic review summarizes the findings of 23 studies on SARS-CoV-2 reinfections. A total of 23,231 reinfection cases were included, with estimated reinfection rates ranging from 0.1% to 6.8%. Reinfections were more common during the Omicron variant period. Female patients were more likely to be reinfected, and the average age of reinfection cases was 38.0 +/- 6. years. The most common symptoms during both primary infection and reinfection were fever, cough, myalgia, fatigue, and headaches. There were no significant differences in clinical pattern or severity of infection between primary infection and reinfection. Factors associated with a higher risk of reinfection included being female, having comorbidities, lacking anti-nucleocapsid IgG after the first infection, being infected during the Delta and Omicron waves, and being unvaccinated. Conflicting age-related findings were reported in two studies. Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 suggests that natural immunity in COVID-19 patients is not long-lasting.
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Sahar Sotoodeh Ghorbani et al.
Summary: Studies have shown cases of COVID-19 patients testing positive for the virus again after recovery, with higher reinfection rates in males and more frequent recurrence in females. Uncertainty regarding long-term immunity after SARS-Cov-2 infection indicates the possibility of reinfection and recurrence post-recovery. Efforts like mass vaccination and proper disease management can help control the frequent occurrence of the disease.
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Nicole Bechmann et al.
Summary: Current evidence shows that COVID-19 severity and mortality are higher in men compared to women, while women may be at a higher risk of reinfection and long-term COVID-19 development. Differences between sexes have also been observed in other infectious diseases and vaccine responses. This could be explained by sex-specific expression patterns of proteins involved in virus binding and entry, as well as divergent reactions of the immune and endocrine systems to acute stress. Understanding the role of sex hormones, comorbidities, and sex chromosome complement in COVID-19 could have implications for disease treatment, public health measures, and follow-up of patients predisposed to long COVID. Considering sex differences in future pandemic surveillance and COVID-19 patient treatment may lead to better disease stratification and improved outcomes.
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Summary: This meta-analysis synthesized global evidence on the risk of reinfection among previously infected individuals with SARS-CoV-2. The findings showed that the incidence of reinfection was lower than that of new infection, indicating a lower risk of reinfection for those with a prior infection. However, further evaluations are needed due to the rapid evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants.
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Summary: The study examined the epidemiological burden of SARS-CoV-2 reinfections and identified potential risk factors. The risk of reinfection was 4.89 times higher during the Omicron phase compared to the Delta phase. Unvaccinated individuals and those vaccinated with at least one dose for more than 120 days had an increased risk of reinfection. Two or more doses of vaccination provided protection against reinfection.
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Shilpa Gopinath et al.
Summary: This study aimed to evaluate breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections in vaccinated individuals by variant distribution and identify common risk associations. It was found that breakthrough infections were more common among variants of concern, with Delta accounting for the largest number of cases. Continued mitigation approaches, such as wearing masks and social distancing, were found to be necessary even in fully vaccinated individuals to prevent transmission.
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Summary: This study conducted a systematic review on patients with reinfection. The results showed that it is possible for rehabilitated patients to be reinfected by SARS-COV-2 and the causes and risk factors of reinfection are not fully understood. The diagnosis and management of reinfection should be consistent with the treatment of the first infection.
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Summary: There have been cases of positive real time-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) results (known as "re-positives") after recovery from COVID-19, which could be due to the high false-negative rate of RT-PCR rather than true reinfection. However, in symptomatic patients, the possibility of reactivation or true reinfection remains. People with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus may be at higher risk of reinfections with COVID-19 due to impaired immune responses. Multiple cases of re-positives/re-infections in individuals with diabetes mellitus have been reported.
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E. Murillo-Zamora et al.
Summary: The study identified factors predicting severe symptomatic laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 reinfection, including increasing age, comorbidities (such as obesity, asthma, type 2 diabetes mellitus), and previous severe laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 history.
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Summary: This study demonstrates that severe COVID-19 patients in intensive care experience a significant decline in hemoglobin levels but an increase in circulating nucleated red cells, indicating a possible induction of stress erythropoiesis by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The research also shows that ACE2 expression peaks during erythropoiesis, making erythroid progenitors susceptible to infection by the virus. Furthermore, the study identifies early erythroid progenitors as the primary target cells for SARS-CoV-2 infection during erythropoiesis, highlighting how the virus can impact the clinical symptoms of severe COVID-19 patients.
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Seyed Mohammad Piri et al.
Summary: The study found a notable risk of disease recurrence in recovered patients, with a recurrence rate reported between 2.3% and 21.4%. Younger patients seemed to be more affected by the recurrence. After the second course of the disease, the severity decreased or remained unchanged in 97.3% of cases. Potential reasons for recurrence include reactivation of the previous disease, reinfection with the same virus, and false negatives.
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Marketa Kubankova et al.
Summary: Various physical parameters of blood cells, including lymphocyte stiffness, monocyte size, neutrophil size and deformability, and heterogeneity of erythrocyte deformation and size, were found to change significantly in COVID-19 patients. While some of these changes recovered after hospitalization, others persisted for months after discharge, demonstrating the long-term impact of COVID-19 on the body.
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Pratima Murthy et al.
Summary: The COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown have significantly impacted the alcohol use, leading to an increase in alcohol-related emergencies, changes in drinking patterns, increased risk of COVID-19 infection, effects on alcohol policies and sales, as well as impacts on vulnerable groups. It is crucial to understand and respond to these issues promptly, intervene early, and prevent further consequences of the pandemic.
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Summary: A 37-year-old healthcare worker in northeastern Brazil experienced two clinical episodes of COVID-19 caused by the B.1.1.33 and emerging P.2 lineages. The findings not only suggest a reinfection case but also the geographic dissemination of the emerging Brazil clade P.2.
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