Estimating individualized treatment effects from randomized controlled trials: a simulation study to compare risk-based approaches

Background Baseline outcome risk can be an important determinant of absolute treatment benefit and has been used in guidelines for personalizing medical decisions. We compared easily applicable risk-based methods for optimal prediction of individualized treatment effects. Methods We simulated RCT data using diverse assumptions for the average treatment effect, a baseline prognostic index of risk, the shape of its interaction with treatment (none, linear, quadratic or non-monotonic), and the magnitude of treatment-related harms (none or constant independent of the prognostic index). We predicted absolute benefit using: models with a constant relative treatment effect; stratification in quarters of the prognostic index; models including a linear interaction of treatment with the prognostic index; models including an interaction of treatment with a restricted cubic spline transformation of the prognostic index; an adaptive approach using Akaike's Information Criterion. We evaluated predictive performance using root mean squared error and measures of discrimination and calibration for benefit. Results The linear-interaction model displayed optimal or close-to-optimal performance across many simulation scenarios with moderate sample size (N = 4,250; similar to 785 events). The restricted cubic splines model was optimal for strong non-linear deviations from a constant treatment effect, particularly when sample size was larger (N = 17,000). The adaptive approach also required larger sample sizes. These findings were illustrated in the GUSTO-I trial. Conclusions An interaction between baseline risk and treatment assignment should be considered to improve treatment effect predictions.

Automated summary

This study compared easily applicable risk-based methods to find optimal prediction methods for individualized treatment effects. The linear-interaction model showed optimal or close-to-optimal performance in many simulation scenarios. The restricted cubic splines model was optimal for strong non-linear deviations when sample size was larger.