Divided infrastructure: legal exclusion and water inequality in an urban slum in Mumbai, India

Inadequate water access is central to the experience of urban inequality across low- and middle-income countries and leads to adverse health and social outcomes. Previous literature on water inequality in Mumbai, India's second-largest city, offers diverse explanations for water disparities between and within slums. This study provides new insights on water disparities in Mumbai's slums by evaluating the influence of legal status on water access. We analysed data from 593 households in Mandala, a slum with legally recognized (notified) and unrecognized (non-notified) neighbourhoods. Households in a non-notified neighbourhood suffered relative disadvantages in water infrastructure, accessibility, reliability and spending. Non-notified households also used significantly fewer litres per capita per day of water, even after controlling for religion and socioeconomic status. Findings suggest that legal exclusion may be a central driver of water inequality. Extending legal recognition to excluded slum settlements, neighbourhoods and households could be a powerful intervention for reducing urban water inequality.

Automated summary

Inadequate water access is a key issue in urban inequality across low- and middle-income countries, leading to negative health and social outcomes. This study examines the influence of legal status on water access in slums in Mumbai, India's second-largest city. The findings suggest that households in non-notified slum neighborhoods face disadvantages in water infrastructure, accessibility, reliability, and spending. Even after considering religion and socioeconomic status, these households use significantly less water per capita per day. Legal exclusion may play a central role in driving water inequality, and extending legal recognition to excluded slum settlements, neighborhoods, and households could help reduce this inequality.