Fold formation in Kurdish Zagros (N Iraq)

Analysis of seismic sections and wells near the frontal folds of Iraqi Kurdistan (Low-and Highly folded zone) document the interplay of folds, faults and possible mechanisms of their generation.Serial sections from 3D seismic volume in the Low folded zone are interpreted based on calibration wells. Sections display fold evolution from low amplitude kinked monocline to high amplitude ramp folding. The fold continues towards the exposed Safeen anticline with a subvertical limb. These lowland sections can also be considered as the lateral growth segment of Safeen anticline.Three geoseismic sections through frontal folds were constructed with variable quality seismic and dips, formation tops from surface and from mountains wells. These sections show tight anticlines with thrust faults cutting to near surface on both limbs; remnant normal faults; a subvertical southern limb crossed by flat thrusts; and a Triassic ductile core.Sections suggest that this part of Zagros is built of two 'rigid' units: an upper, Mesozoic-Neogene and a lower, Paleozoic one, separated by a ductile detachment along the lower Triassic. The upper unit is prone to folding and faulting, the lower one to faulting. The detachment in-between comprises the Kurrachine C, lower Triassic Beduh and Mirga Mir formations, and potentially the top members of Permian Chia Zairi formation. Detachment is possibly dominated by evaporites. Our detachment is thicker than only Beduh-Mirga Mir detachment proposed by recent reconstructions of others.Folds are initiated as detachment folds above thickened parts of the Lower Triassic, then evolve into ramp folds. Ramp is formed by the merger of flat thrusts with pre-existing steep earlier normal faults that affect the Mesozoic section. Shear and drag beneath these ramps lead to steepening of the southern limb and to fault propagation. A basal flat thrust is the final element of this fault propagation stage. Underlying rigid Paleozoic can form imbricates that push the Triassic detachment upwards, creating passive folds. These Paleozoic imbricates dip to the south and not to the north, as suggested by reconstructions of others. Finally, strike slip shear documented at outcrops also contributes to the final fold form.Own and others' surface geological observations, indications from seismic and radiometric data suggest that fold generation started in Late Cretaceous, continued in the Paleogene in internal Highly folded zone. In our study area only Late Neogene fold growth can be documented, which is in harmony with 5-8 Ma uplift dates of others. Others' geomorphologic work suggests fold lateral growth is a quick process. We propose that regional folds, such as Safeen anticline grow in distinct short periods separated by longer quiet intervals.

Automated summary

This article analyzes seismic sections and wells near the frontal folds of Iraqi Kurdistan, documenting the interplay of folds, faults, and possible mechanisms of their generation. It provides insights into the evolution of folds, as well as the geological structures and formations involved.