Behavioral, ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying caterpillar-ant symbioses

At least 30 different groups in seventeen butterfly and moth families (Lepidoptera) include ant-associated caterpillars. The life histories of more than 900 ant-associated species have been documented from the butterfly families Lycaenidae and Riodinidae, with relationships ranging from parasitism to mutualism. Caterpillars that appear to secrete food rewards for ants are not necessarily mutualists, and a number of species are known to manipulate ants with deceptive chemical and vibratory signals. The functional variability of different exocrine glands deployed as 'ant organs' makes them prone to convergence, and it remains unclear whether ant association originated more than once in lycaenids and riodinids. The relative costs and benefits of caterpillar integration with ants is context dependent: both top-down and bottom-up effects influence the evolution of ant associations.

Automated summary

At least 30 different groups of butterflies and moths have ant-associated caterpillars. Over 900 ant-associated species have been documented from the families Lycaenidae and Riodinidae, showing a range of relationships from parasitism to mutualism. Some caterpillars manipulate ants through deceptive chemical and vibratory signals. The costs and benefits of caterpillar integration with ants depend on the context and both top-down and bottom-up effects contribute to the evolution of ant associations.