A Review on Immunological Responses to SARS-CoV-2 and Various COVID-19 Vaccine Regimens

Review Infectious Diseases

Comparing COVID-19 vaccines for their characteristics, efficacy and effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern: a narrative review

Thibault Fiolet et al.

Summary: Overall, COVID-19 vaccines have high efficacy against the original strain and variants of concern, with rare serious adverse events. However, prices vary significantly for different vaccines.

CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND INFECTION (2022)

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Review Virology

COVID-19 vaccines mix-and-match: The concept, the efficacy and the doubts

Ronak Rashedi et al.

Summary: The search for effective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 began during the COVID-19 pandemic, with full vaccination considered essential to overcoming the crisis. Challenges have included adverse reactions leading to vaccine discontinuation in some countries, difficulties in vaccine supply in poorer regions, and reduced effectiveness due to new variants. The mix-and-match strategy of using heterologous vaccines may offer a solution by improving immune response and addressing shortages.

JOURNAL OF MEDICAL VIROLOGY (2022)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

COVID-19 reinfections among naturally infected and vaccinated individuals

Sezanur Rahman et al.

Summary: This study investigated the rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its clinical features among infection-naive, infected, vaccinated, and post-infection-vaccinated individuals. The findings showed that naturally infected populations were less likely to be reinfected by SARS-CoV-2 than individuals who were infection-naive or vaccinated. However, a significant proportion of naturally infected or vaccinated individuals were (re)-infected by the emerging variants.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2022)

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Article Infectious Diseases

Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, BBIBP-CorV: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 trial

Shengli Xia et al.

Summary: The inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, BBIBP-CorV, demonstrated safety and immunogenicity in two age groups. Humoral responses against SARS-CoV-2 were induced in all vaccine recipients by day 42. A two-dose immunisation with 4 mu g vaccine on days 0 and 21 or days 0 and 28 achieved higher neutralising antibody titres compared to other dosing schedules.

LANCET INFECTIOUS DISEASES (2021)

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Review Pediatrics

Case report and systematic review suggest that children may experience similar long-term effects to adults after clinical COVID-19

Jonas F. Ludvigsson

Summary: This study focuses on the persistent symptoms in five Swedish children post-COVID-19, indicating a lack of pediatric data on long COVID. Similarly to adults, children may also experience symptoms of long COVID with females potentially being more affected.

ACTA PAEDIATRICA (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Functional SARS-CoV-2-Specific Immune Memory Persists after Mild COVID-19

Lauren B. Rodda et al.

Summary: The study found that individuals recovered from mild COVID-19 develop sustained SARS-CoV-2-specific immunological memory for at least 3 months, including immunoglobulin antibodies, neutralizing plasma, and memory B and T cells. These memory lymphocytes exhibit potent antiviral function, aiding in immune defense.

CELL (2021)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2

Christian Gaebler et al.

Summary: After infection with SARS-CoV-2, antibody levels against the spike protein decrease significantly, but the number of memory B cells remain unchanged, indicating an evolving humoral response at 6.2 months after infection.

NATURE (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

T cell and antibody responses induced by a single dose of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine in a phase 1/2 clinical trial

Katie J. Ewer et al.

Summary: A single dose of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine can induce favorable immune responses that may help control or prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Immune determinants of COVID-19 disease presentation and severity

Petter Brodin

Summary: The severity of COVID-19 varies by sex and age, and is linked to comorbidities. Differences in immune reactions may go some way to explain this.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Hyperinflammation and Immune Response Generation in COVID-19

Kamla Prasad Mishra et al.

Summary: Infection with SARS-CoV-2 virus triggers hyperinflammation and cell-mediated immune response in the human body. The inflammatory response generated after infection may contribute to disease severity. Other factors may also affect immunity and play a role in disease severity and outcome.

NEUROIMMUNOMODULATION (2021)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Interim Results of a Phase 1-2a Trial of Ad26.COV2.S Covid-19 Vaccine

J. Sadoff et al.

Summary: The study conducted a multicenter, placebo-controlled, phase 1-2a trial, with participants randomly assigned to receive the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine. The results showed that the safety and immunogenicity profiles of the vaccine support further development.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection

Jennifer M. Dan et al.

Summary: Different components of immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 exhibit distinct kinetics, with antibodies and spike-specific memory B cells remaining relatively stable over 6 months, while CD4(+) T cells and CD8(+) T cells declining with a half-life of 3 to 5 months after infection.

SCIENCE (2021)

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Review Physiology

Aging, Immunity, and COVID-19: How Age Influences the Host Immune Response to Coronavirus Infections?

Varnica Bajaj et al.

Summary: The novel coronavirus has greatly impacted the world with over 72 million cases and 1.6 million deaths, mostly affecting the elderly population. Aging leads to changes in the immune system, making elderly individuals more susceptible to infections and less responsive to vaccines. Understanding age-related immune system changes is crucial for managing infectious diseases like COVID-19.

FRONTIERS IN PHYSIOLOGY (2021)

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Review Infectious Diseases

Review on Up-to-Date Status of Candidate Vaccines for COVID-19 Disease

Tafere Mulaw Belete

Summary: The global COVID-19 pandemic poses serious threats to public health and economic stability, emphasizing the critical need for vaccine development. Drawing on the experience from SARS-CoV-1 vaccine development, global efforts are accelerating the research and development of various vaccine candidates to combat the pandemic.

INFECTION AND DRUG RESISTANCE (2021)

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Review Pharmacology & Pharmacy

BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine: First Approval

Yvette N. Lamb

Summary: BNT162b2, a lipid nanoparticle-formulated mRNA vaccine encoding the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, has received emergency use authorization in multiple countries for individuals aged 16 and older to prevent COVID-19.

DRUGS (2021)

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Article Infectious Diseases

Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (CoronaVac) in healthy adults aged 60 years and older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 clinical trial

Zhiwei Wu et al.

Summary: The study showed that CoronaVac vaccine is safe and well tolerated in older adults, and is able to induce neutralizing antibody levels. The highest dose of 3 μg of the vaccine can generate neutralizing antibody levels similar to the 6 μg dose, supporting the use of the 3 μg dose CoronaVac in phase 3 trials.

LANCET INFECTIOUS DISEASES (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 spike 69/70 deletion, E484K and N501Y variants by BNT162b2 vaccine-elicited sera

Xuping Xie et al.

Summary: The study found that human sera from recipients of the BNT162b2 vaccine can neutralize SARS-CoV-2 viruses containing key spike mutations from the newly emerged UK and SA variants.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Evolution of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 in mild-moderate COVID-19

Adam K. Wheatley et al.

Summary: The durability of infection-induced SARS-CoV-2 immunity has major implications for reinfection and vaccine development. Antibody, B cell, and T cell responses decline over the first 4 months post-infection, while S-specific IgG(+) memory B cells consistently accumulate. The study suggests that natural infection may only provide transient protection at a population level, highlighting the need for more immunogenic and durable vaccines.

NATURE COMMUNICATIONS (2021)

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Review Immunology

SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates

Nikolaos C. Kyriakidis et al.

Summary: The new SARS-CoV-2 virus is rapidly spreading worldwide, causing the COVID-19 pandemic with more than 1.866 million deaths. Over 64 vaccine candidates are being developed globally, aiming to induce antibodies to prevent viral entry. Thirteen vaccine candidates are currently in Phase 3 clinical trials, showing promising progress towards approval for large-scale immunizations.

NPJ VACCINES (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection

David S. Khoury et al.

Summary: The level of neutralizing antibodies is closely related to immune protection against COVID-19, playing a crucial role in protecting against detected infection and severe infection. Studies have shown that neutralizing titers will decline over time after vaccination, leading to decreased protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

SARS-CoV-2 infection induces sustained humoral immune responses in convalescent patients following symptomatic COVID-19

Jun Wu et al.

Summary: The study quantified IgM and IgG antibodies recognizing SARS-CoV-2 in 349 symptomatic COVID-19 patients over 6 months, showing that IgM levels dropped after 3 months while IgG responses contracted but remained high at 6 months.

NATURE COMMUNICATIONS (2021)

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Review Immunology

An Updated Review of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines and the Importance of Effective Vaccination Programs in Pandemic Times

Cielo Garcia-Montero et al.

Summary: Developing vaccines has become a global priority to achieve herd immunity; successful vaccination programs require effective strategies and policies; the importance of vaccination becomes even more crucial in the face of public hesitancy, conspiracy theories, and misinformation.

VACCINES (2021)

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Review Microbiology

COVID-19: Insights into Potential Vaccines

Ke-Yan Loo et al.

Summary: The fear of COVID-19 loomed over the global population as they welcomed the new year in 2021, with millions infected and lives at risk. Pharmaceutical companies swiftly developed various types of vaccines, with several already authorized for emergency use, while others await approval.

MICROORGANISMS (2021)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of BNT162b2 booster in ChAdOx1-S-primed participants (CombiVacS): a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 2 trial

Alberto M. Borobia et al.

Summary: To date, there are no immunological data on COVID-19 heterologous vaccination schedules in humans. This study evaluated the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of administering BNT162b2 as a second dose in individuals primed with ChAdOx1-S. The results showed that BNT162b2 induced a robust immune response in individuals prime vaccinated with ChAdOx1-S, with an acceptable and manageable reactogenicity profile.

LANCET (2021)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Efficacy and safety of an inactivated whole-virion SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (CoronaVac): interim results of a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial in Turkey

Mine Durusu Tanriover et al.

Summary: The study presented the interim efficacy and safety results of the CoronaVac vaccine in a phase 3 clinical trial in Turkey, demonstrating high efficacy against PCR-confirmed symptomatic COVID-19 with good safety and tolerability profile. Results showed significant differences in the frequency of any adverse events between the vaccine and placebo groups, indicating excellent protective effects of the vaccine.

LANCET (2021)

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News Item Multidisciplinary Sciences

THE CASE IS GROWING FOR MIX-AND-MATCH COVID VACCINES

Dyani Lewis

NATURE (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of heterologous ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/mRNA vaccination

Tina Schmidt et al.

Summary: In healthy adults, vaccination with an mRNA vaccine as a booster, regardless of the initial vaccine, resulted in higher levels of spike-specific antibodies and T cells compared to booster vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCov-19. Heterologous vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 followed by an mRNA vaccine induced strong immune responses with acceptable reactogenicity, showing similar or better effects than homologous mRNA vaccine regimens.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants after heterologous and homologous ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/BNT162b2 vaccination

Joana Barros-Martins et al.

Summary: A study found that booster vaccination with BNT162b2 in healthcare professionals previously vaccinated with ChAdOx-1 nCoV-19 elicited more neutralizing antibodies and higher frequencies of virus-specific T cells. Additionally, BNT162b2 induced high titers of neutralizing antibodies against variants of concern, such as B.1.1.7, B.1.351, and P.1.

NATURE MEDICINE (2021)

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Letter Medicine, General & Internal

SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization with BNT162b2 Vaccine Dose 3

Ann R. Falsey et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2021)

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News Item Multidisciplinary Sciences

Mixing vaccines may boost immune responses

Gretchen Vogel

SCIENCE (2021)

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Article Public, Environmental & Occupational Health

Reduced Risk of Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 After COVID-19 Vaccination — Kentucky, May–June 2021

Alyson M. Cavanaugh et al.

MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT (2021)

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Article Immunology

Heterologous ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/BNT162b2 Prime-Boost Vaccination Induces Strong Humoral Responses among Health Care Workers

Louise Benning et al.

Summary: This study demonstrates that heterologous ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/BNT162b2 vaccination is safe and induces a strong and broad humoral response in healthy individuals.

VACCINES (2021)

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Review Immunology

Prospects for durable immune control of SARS-CoV-2 and prevention of reinfection

Deborah Cromer et al.

Summary: The duration of immunity to COVID-19 and the risk of reinfection remain unclear. Immunity is crucial for long-term control of the pandemic, but studies suggest a decline in antibody responses and an increase in documented cases of reinfection with SARS-CoV-2. Understanding memory responses and immune control dynamics is essential for designing vaccines and predicting the future trajectory of the pandemic.

NATURE REVIEWS IMMUNOLOGY (2021)

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Article Immunology

Dynamics of Neutralizing Antibody Titers in the Months After Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection

Katharine H. D. Crawford et al.

Summary: Antibody levels, including neutralizing antibodies, decline after SARS-CoV-2 infection, with a 4-fold average decrease in titers from 1 to 4 months after symptom onset. This decline is accompanied by a decrease in total antibodies capable of binding the viral spike protein. Further studies are needed to determine the long-term durability of immunity to SARS-CoV-2, including examination of long-lived B cells and antibody titers over extended periods.

JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES (2021)

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Review Cell Biology

Insights to SARS-CoV-2 life cycle, pathophysiology, and rationalized treatments that target COVID-19 clinical complications

Ioannis P. Trougakos et al.

Summary: The article discusses the two-phase nature of COVID-19, highlighting the characteristics of increased virus transmission and uncontrolled inflammatory immune responses which can lead to severe complications. The focus is on approaches to suppress viral infection rates, activate adaptive immune responses, and mitigate tissue damage and cytokine storms associated with COVID-19.

JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE (2021)

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Article Virology

Receptor recognition by novel coronavirus from Wuhan: An analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS

Yushun Wan et al.

JOURNAL OF VIROLOGY (2020)

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Review Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Toll-like Receptors and the Control of Immunity

Katherine A. Fitzgerald et al.

CELL (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor

Markus Hoffmann et al.

CELL (2020)

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Editorial Material Immunology

Functional exhaustion of antiviral lymphocytes in COVID-19 patients

Meijuan Zheng et al.

CELLULAR & MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Letter Immunology

Elevated exhaustion levels and reduced functional diversity of T cells in peripheral blood may predict severe progression in COVID-19 patients

Hong-Yi Zheng et al.

CELLULAR & MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Article Immunology

Comparative Replication and Immune Activation Profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in Human Lungs: An Ex Vivo Study With Implications for the Pathogenesis of COVID-19

Hin Chu et al.

CLINICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES (2020)

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Article Immunology

Characteristics of Peripheral Lymphocyte Subset Alteration in COVID-19 Pneumonia

Fan Wang et al.

JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Factors associated with hospital admission and critical illness among 5279 people with coronavirus disease 2019 in New York City: prospective cohort study

Christopher M. Petrilli et al.

BMJ-BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL (2020)

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Letter Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Breadth of concomitant immune responses prior to patient recovery: a case report of non-severe COVID-19

Irani Thevarajan et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19

Quan-Xin Long et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Medical Laboratory Technology

IgA-Ab response to spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19: A longitudinal study

Andrea Padoan et al.

CLINICA CHIMICA ACTA (2020)

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Article Pharmacology & Pharmacy

Antiviral activities of type I interferons to SARS-CoV-2 infection

Emily Mantlo et al.

ANTIVIRAL RESEARCH (2020)

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Article Infectious Diseases

SARS-CoV-2-related paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome, an epidemiological study, France, 1 March to 17 May 2020

Alexandre Belot et al.

EUROSURVEILLANCE (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial

Feng-Cai Zhu et al.

LANCET (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial

Pedro M. Folegatti et al.

LANCET (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Antigen-Specific Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Acute COVID-19 and Associations with Age and Disease Severity

Carolyn Rydyznski Moderbacher et al.

CELL (2020)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques

Neeltje van Doremalen et al.

NATURE (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19

Aaron J. Wilk et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Clinical and immunological assessment of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections

Quan-Xin Long et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Humoral and circulating follicular helper T cell responses in recovered patients with COVID-19

Jennifer A. Juno et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2020)

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Letter Medicine, General & Internal

Rapid Decay of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Persons with Mild Covid-19

F. Javier Ibarrondo et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

An mRNA Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2-Preliminary Report

L. A. Jackson et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Kawasaki-like multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children during the covid-19 pandemic in Paris, France: prospective observational study

Julie Toubiana et al.

BMJ-BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Safety and immunogenicity of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine in two formulations: two open, non-randomised phase 1/2 studies from Russia

Denis Y. Logunov et al.

LANCET (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Phase 1-2 Trial of a SARS-CoV-2 Recombinant Spike Protein Nanoparticle Vaccine

Cheryl Keech et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2020)

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Article Immunology

NVX-CoV2373 vaccine protects cynomolgus macaque upper and lower airways against SARS-CoV-2 challenge

Mimi Guebre-Xabier et al.

VACCINE (2020)

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Article Microbiology

Decline of Humoral Responses against SARS-CoV-2 Spike in Convalescent Individuals

Guillaume Beaudoin-Bussieres et al.

MBIO (2020)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Reduced numbers of T cells and B cells correlates with persistent SARS-CoV-2 presence in non-severe COVID-19 patients

Bing Liu et al.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2020)

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Article Public, Environmental & Occupational Health

Case Series of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Adults Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection - United Kingdom and United States, March-August 2020

Sapna Bamrah Morris et al.

MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT (2020)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Safety and immunogenicity of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine administered in a prime-boost regimen in young and old adults (COV002): a single-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 2/3 trial

Maheshi N. Ramasamy et al.

LANCET (2020)

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Review Immunology

SARS-CoV-2: Immune Response Elicited by Infection and Development of Vaccines and Treatments

Gisela Canedo-Marroquin et al.

FRONTIERS IN IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Article Immunology

Defining the features and duration of antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection associated with disease severity and outcome

Katharina Roltgen et al.

SCIENCE IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Article Immunology

Rapid generation of durable B cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins in COVID-19 and convalescence

Gemma E. Hartley et al.

SCIENCE IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Review Immunology

The immunology of SARS-CoV-2 infections and vaccines

Lilit Grigoryan et al.

SEMINARS IN IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Review Immunology

The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention

Matthew Zirui Tay et al.

NATURE REVIEWS IMMUNOLOGY (2020)

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Article Medicine, Research & Experimental

Anti-spike IgG causes severe acute lung injury by skewing macrophage responses during acute SARS-CoV infection

Li Liu et al.

JCI INSIGHT (2019)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Heterogeneity and longevity of antibody memory to viruses and vaccines

Alice Antia et al.

PLOS BIOLOGY (2018)

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Article Microbiology

Enhanced inflammation in New Zealand white rabbits when MERS-CoV reinfection occurs in the absence of neutralizing antibody

Katherine V. Houser et al.

PLOS PATHOGENS (2017)

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Article Virology

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus E protein transports calcium ions and activates the NLRP3 inflammasome

Jose L. Nieto-Torres et al.

VIROLOGY (2015)

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Article Immunology

Human Blood CXCR5+CD4+ T Cells Are Counterparts of T Follicular Cells and Contain Specific Subsets that Differentially Support Antibody Secretion

Rimpei Morita et al.

IMMUNITY (2011)

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Review Dentistry, Oral Surgery & Medicine

Too old to fight? Aging and its toll on innate immunity

G. Hajishengallis

MOLECULAR ORAL MICROBIOLOGY (2010)

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Article Medicine, General & Internal

Duration of humoral immunity to common viral and vaccine antigens

Ian J. Amanna et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2007)

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A Review on Immunological Responses to SARS-CoV-2 and Various COVID-19 Vaccine Regimens

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