The dynamic floor of Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, USA: The last 14 k.y. of hydrothermal explosions, venting, doming, and faulting

Hydrothermal explosions are significant potential hazards in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. The northern Yel-lowstone Lake area hosts the three largest hydrothermal explosion craters known on Earth empowered by the highest heat flow values in Yellowstone and active seismic-ity and deformation. Geological and geo-chemical studies of eighteen sublacustrine cores provide the first detailed synthesis of the age, sedimentary facies, and origin of multiple hydrothermal explosion deposits. New tephrochronology and radiocarbon results provide a four-dimensional view of recent geologic activity since recession at ca. 15-14.5 ka of the >1-km-thick Pinedale ice sheet.The sedimentary record in Yellowstone Lake contains multiple hydrothermal explo-sion deposits ranging in age from ca. 13 ka to similar to 1860 CE. Hydrothermal explosions re-quire a sudden drop in pressure resulting in rapid expansion of high-temperature fluids causing fragmentation, ejection, and crater formation; explosions may be initiated by seismicity, faulting, deformation, or rapid lake-level changes. Fallout and transport of ejecta produces distinct facies of subaqueous hydrothermal explosion deposits. Yellow-stone hydrothermal systems are character-ized by alkaline-Cl and/or vapor-dominated fluids that, respectively, produce alteration dominated by silica-smectite-chlorite or by kaolinite. Alkaline-Cl liquids flash to steam during hydrothermal explosions, producing much more energetic events than simple va-por expansion in vapor-dominated systems. Two enormous explosion events in Yellow-stone Lake were triggered quite differently: Elliott's Crater explosion resulted from a major seismic event (8 ka) that ruptured an impervious hydrothermal dome, whereas the Mary Bay explosion (13 ka) was triggered by a sudden drop in lake level stimulated by a seismic event, tsunami, and outlet channel erosion.

Automated summary

Hydrothermal explosions in Yellowstone National Park pose significant hazards, especially in the northern Yellowstone Lake area. Geological and geochemical studies of sublacustrine cores have provided detailed information on the age, sedimentary facies, and origin of hydrothermal explosion deposits. These explosions are initiated by sudden pressure drops and result in the rapid expansion of high-temperature fluids, leading to fragmentation, ejection, and crater formation. The alkaline-Cl and/or vapor-dominated fluids in Yellowstone produce distinct alteration patterns and can lead to more energetic events compared to vapor expansion.