Toward In-Field Determination of Nitrate Concentrations Via Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films-Incorporation of Reductants and Color Reagents

Diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs) have been established as useful tools for the determination of nitrate, phosphate, trace metals, and organic concentrations. General use of DGTs, however, is limited by the subsequent requirement for laboratory analysis. To increase the uptake of DGT as a tool for routine monitoring by nonspecialists, not researchers alone, methods for in-field analysis are required. Incorporation of color reagents into the binding layer, or as the binding layer, could enable the easy and accurate determination of analyte concentrations in-field. Here, we sought to develop a chitosan-stabilized silver nanoparticle (AuNP) suspension liquid-binding layer which developed color on exposure to nitrite, combined with an Fe(0)-impregnated poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid/acrylamide copolymer hydrogel [Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA)] for the reduction of nitrate. The AuNP-chitosan suspension was housed in a 3D designed and printed DGT base, with a volume of 2 mL, for use with the standard DGT solution probe caps. A dialysis membrane with a molecular weight cutoff of <15 kDa was used, as part of the material diffusion layer, to ensure that the AuNP-chitosan did not diffuse through to the bulk solution. This synthesized AuNP-chitosan provided quantitative nitrite concentrations (0 to 1000 mg L-1) and masses (145 mu g) in laboratory-based color development studies. An Fe(III)-impregnated poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid/acrylamide copolymer hydrogel [Fe(III)-p(AMPS/AMA)] was developed (10% AMPS, and 90% AMA), which was treated with NaBH4 to form an Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA) hydrogel. The Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA) hydrogel quantitatively reduced nitrate to nitrite. The total nitrite mass produced was similar to 110 mu g, from nitrate. The diffusional characteristics of nitrite and nitrate through the Fe(III)-p(AMPS/AMA) and dialysis membrane were 1.40 x 10(-5) and 1.40 x 10(-5) and 5.05 x 10(-6) and 5.15 x 10(-6) cm(2) s(-1) at 25 degrees C respectively. The Fe(0)-hydrogel and AuNP-chitosan suspension operated successfully in laboratory tests individually; however, the combined AuNP-chitosan suspension and Fe(0)-hydrogel DGT did not provide quantitative nitrate concentrations. Further research is required to improve the reaction rate of the AuNP-chitosan nitrite-binding layer, to meet the requirement of rapid binding to operate as a DGT.

Automated summary

Diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs) have been established as useful tools for the determination of nitrate, phosphate, trace metals, and organic concentrations. To increase the uptake of DGT for routine monitoring, methods for in-field analysis are required. In this study, a chitosan-stabilized silver nanoparticle (AuNP) suspension liquid-binding layer and an Fe(0)-impregnated poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid/acrylamide copolymer hydrogel [Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA)] were developed for the determination of nitrite and nitrate concentrations.