Extreme solar events

We trace the evolution of research on extreme solar and solar-terrestrial events from the 1859 Carrington event to the rapid development of the last twenty years. Our focus is on the largest observed/inferred/theoretical cases of sunspot groups, flares on the Sun and Sun-like stars, coronal mass ejections, solar proton events, and geomagnetic storms. The reviewed studies are based on modern observations, historical or long-term data including the auroral and cosmogenic radionuclide record, and Kepler observations of Sun-like stars. We compile a table of 100- and 1000-year events based on occurrence frequency distributions for the space weather phenomena listed above. Questions considered include the Sun-like nature of superflare stars and the existence of impactful but unpredictable solar black swans and extreme dragon king solar phenomena that can involve different physics from that operating in events which are merely large.

Automated summary

This article traces the evolution of research on extreme solar and solar-terrestrial events, focusing on the largest observed/inferred/theoretical cases. The reviewed studies are based on modern observations, historical or long-term data, and observations of Sun-like stars. A table of 100- and 1000-year events is compiled and questions regarding the nature of superflare stars and the existence of unpredictable solar phenomena are discussed.