Near-infrared excitation/emission microscopy with lanthanide-based nanoparticles

Near-infrared optical imaging offers some advantages over conventional imaging, such as deeper tissue penetration, low or no autofluorescence, and reduced tissue scattering. Lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (LnNPs) have become a trend in the field of photoactive nanomaterials for optical imaging due to their unique optical features and because they can use NIR light as excitation and/or emission light. This review is focused on NaREF4 NPs and offers an overview of the state-of-the-art investigation in their use as luminophores in optical microscopy, time-resolved imaging, and super-resolution nanoscopy based on, or applied to, LnNPs. Secondly, whenever LnNPs are combined with other nanomaterial or nanoparticle to afford nanohybrids, the characterization of their physical and chemical properties is of current interest. In this context, the latest trends in optical microscopy and their future perspectives are discussed.

Automated summary

This review focuses on the latest research progress of NaREF4 NPs as fluorophores in optical microscopy, time-resolved imaging, and super-resolution nanoscopy, and introduces the advantages of near-infrared optical imaging and the trend of photoactive nanomaterials. Furthermore, the characterization of the physical and chemical properties of LnNPs when combined with other nanomaterials or nanoparticles to form nanohybrids, as well as the latest trends in optical microscopy are discussed.