Refrigeration Below 1 Kelvin

There is a growing demand for refrigeration techniques to reach temperatures below 1 K because these temperatures are critical for a wide range of rapidly developing applications, mainly in the fields of quantum information science, electromagnetic radiation detection, dark matter search and condensed matter physics. A number of methods exist for realizing these temperatures, including He-3-based cooling (He-3 evaporation, dilution refrigeration and Pomeranchuk cooling), solid-state cooling (electron demagnetization, nuclear demagnetization and tunnel junction cooling), laser cooling and evaporative cooling among others. Here, this study presents basic principles of these methods and summarizes the corresponding advances in operating temperature ranges and cooling capacities, with the goal of identifying each method's pros and cons. It is concluded with discussions of the challenges with these methods and key points for improving their performance.

Automated summary

This study presents various methods for achieving temperatures below 1 K and evaluates their pros and cons. It summarizes the advances in operating temperature ranges and cooling capacities of each method while discussing the challenges and key points for improving their performance.