On the cause and correction of the anomalously high contact angles measured on soils and granular materials

Anomalously high water contact angles are often measured for soils or other granular materials when using a goniometer which is designed for use with flat surfaces. For many years such high contact angles have been rationalised in terms of Cassie and Baxter, and/or Wenzel models for contact angles on non-planar surfaces, but it is becoming increasingly apparent that the theories behind these models are fundamentally flawed. Here, we present an alternative interpretation of these anomalously high contact angles which takes into consideration how a water drop sits on the particulate surface, and propose a geometric correction factor to address this anomaly. Experimental data from studies with precisely arranged needles and spheres, and model and natural soils, were used to explore this approach and examine the validity of the method. Application of the correction factor to measurements of water drops on 1 mm diameter steel spheres hydrophobised with paraffin wax gave a reduction of the measured contact angle of 140.4(+/- 0.6)degrees to a corrected contact angle of 108.2(+/- 1.0)degrees, which is within 3.5 degrees of the flat-plane contact angle for water on the wax of 111.7(+/- 0.6)degrees. For paraffin wax coated soils, measured contact angles are shown to be 15-25 degrees higher than comparable flat-plane contact angle. This correction factor may be useful in interpreting goniometer contact angle measurements of irregular surfaces since it is the flat-plane, rather than measured, contact angle which gives a measure of the polarity/hydrophobicity of the surface.

Automated summary

This study presents a new interpretation of anomalously high contact angles measured on non-flat surfaces, proposing a geometric correction factor to address this anomaly. Experimental data showed that applying this correction factor can adjust the measured contact angle to a value closer to the flat-plane contact angle, providing a useful tool for interpreting goniometer contact angle measurements on irregular surfaces.