Hybrid renewable energy applications in zero-energy buildings and communities integrating battery and hydrogen vehicle storage*

This study presents hybrid renewable energy systems integrated with stationary battery and mobile hydrogen vehicle storage for a zero-energy community consisting of campus, office and residential buildings based on practical energy use data and simulations. A time-of-use grid penalty cost model evaluating grid import and export during on-peak and off-peak periods is proposed to achieve the power grid flexibility and economy. Multi objective optimizations are conducted to size zero-energy buildings and the community considering the renewable energy self-consumption, on-site load coverage and grid penalty cost in the coupled platform of TRNSYS and jEplus+EA. The study results indicate that battery storage improves the renewable energy self consumption, load coverage, hydrogen system efficiency and grid integration of the zero-energy community. Grid penalty cost reductions of 145.36% 158.92% and 135.05% 164.41% are achieved in zero-energy scenarios with and without battery storage compared with baseline scenarios without renewable energy. The lifetime net present value of four zero-energy scenarios with battery storage is increased by 22.39% 96.17% compared with baseline scenarios, while it is reduced by 6.45% of US$ 7.62M and 1.90% of US$ 2.16M in zero energy campus and residential buildings without battery storage. Substantial environmental benefits are also achieved in zero-energy scenarios with and without battery storage for reducing carbon emissions by 71.23% 90.93% and 67.57% 91.36%, respectively. Such a comprehensive techno-economic-environmental feasibility study can offer significant guidance for relative stakeholders to develop renewable energy applications for zero energy buildings and communities in urban areas.

Automated summary

The study demonstrates that battery storage can improve the self-consumption of renewable energy, load coverage, efficiency of hydrogen systems, and grid integration of zero-energy communities. Compared to baseline scenarios, zero-energy scenarios with battery storage can reduce grid penalty costs, increase lifetime net present value, and significantly reduce carbon emissions.