Recent Advances in Synthesis of Difluoromethylene Phosphonates for Biological Applications

For almost 40 years, difluoromethylene phosphonates have proven to be versatile molecular tools in biochemical studies owing to their close resemblance to naturally occurring phosphates and phosphonates. As bioisosteric, non-hydrolyzable analogs of these essential molecules, difluoromethylene phosphonates can target the critical parts of the cellular machinery and therefore exhibit a diverse spectrum of biological activity. In the past ten years, there have appeared many new methods for the synthesis of difluoromethylene phosphonates. Most notably, photoredox catalysis has firmly entered the field, while cross-coupling and nucleophilic strategies have met considerable elaboration and refinement, entirely in accord with the current trends in synthetic organic chemistry. Herein, we introduce difluoromethylene phosphonates as a distinct, high-tech subclass of synthetic phosphonates resulting from the research efforts on the cross-section of organophosphorus, organofluorine, and bioorganic chemistry. We then proceed to the discussion of general methods for the preparation of difluoromethylene phosphonates, comprehensively reviewing reactions developed in the past 15 years while providing the context of earlier works where appropriate. Finally, we present selected examples of molecules with high biological activity, their biological targets, and the synthetic steps employed for their preparation.

Automated summary

Difluoromethylene phosphonates have been versatile tools in biochemical studies for nearly 40 years, exhibiting diverse biological activities by targeting critical cellular machinery. Recent advancements in synthesis, particularly in photoredox catalysis, have contributed to the development of new methods for their preparation. This subclass of synthetic phosphonates, resulting from intersecting fields of organophosphorus, organofluorine, and bioorganic chemistry, holds promise for further research and applications in biological studies.