Natural and anthropogenic factors controlling the calcareous springs biodiversity (Cracow-Czestochowa Upland, Poland)

The thirteen springs of Cracow-Czestochowa Upland were analized in respected of their geological structure, hydrogeology, physical and chemical water conditions, and groundwater pollution. The study of the causes and consequences of land-use and other human induced changes was examined by the estimation of biodiversity and environmental requirements of individual species. The studied biotic variables in spring habitats referred to diatoms (algae), mosses, vascular flora and benthic fauna. The species presence was controlled by both natural and anthropogenic factors. The results showed that the heterogeneity of diatoms, mosses and vascular flora of springs are mainly constrained by physical and chemical water parameters. Among other factors reflecting species requirements (including benthic fauna) in the springs were the mineralogical diversification of bottom sediment, discharge and flow velocity, physical and chemical water parameters and anthropopressure. The most natural springs were large outflows Centuria and Blekitne Zrodla. The springs Proro and Laczki Kobylafiskie are among the most anthropogenically modified springs. Various taxa such as postglacial relict Crenobia alpina were found in selected springs (Pilica-Piaski and Centuria). Tracking changes in springs using hydrogeological monitoring and analysis of related bioindicators is the only valuable method for testing long-term trends in our environment. (C) 2020 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.