Mobilization of pdifmodules inAcinetobacter: A novel mechanism for antibiotic resistance gene shuffling?

XerCD-difsite-specific recombination is a well characterized system, found in most bacteria and archaea. Its role is resolution of chromosomal dimers that arise from homologous recombination. Xer-mediated recombination is also used by several plasmids for multimer resolution to enhance stability and by some phage for integration into the chromosome. In the past decade, it has been hypothesized that an alternate and novel function exists for this system in the dissemination of genetic elements, notably antibiotic resistance genes, inAcinetobacterspecies. Currently the mechanism underlying this apparent genetic mobility is unknown. Multidrug resistantAcinetobacter baumanniiis an increasingly problematic pathogen that can cause recurring infections. Sequencing of numerous plasmids from clinical isolates ofA. baumanniirevealed the presence of possible mobile modules: genes were found flanked by pairs of Xer recombination sites, called plasmid-dif(pdif) sites. These modules have been identified in multiple otherwise unrelated plasmids and in different genetic contexts suggesting they are mobile elements. In most cases, the pairs of sites flanking a gene (or genes) are in inverted repeat, but there can be multiple modules per plasmid providing pairs of recombination sites that can be used for inversion or fusion/deletion reactions; as many as 16 pdifsites have been seen in a single plasmid. Similar modules including genes for surviving environmental toxins have also been found in strains ofAcinetobacter Iwoffiisolated from permafrost cores; this suggests that these mobile modules are an ancient adaptation and not a novel response to antibiotic pressure. These modules bear all the hallmarks of mobile genetic elements, yet, their movement has never been directly observed to date. This review gives an overview of the current state of this novel research field.