Co-substrate addition accelerated amoxicillin degradation and detoxification by up-regulating degradation related enzymes and promoting cell resistance

beta-Lactam antibiotics are the most commonly used antibiotics, and are difficult to remove by conventional biological treatments because of their persistent and toxic nature. The addition of co-substrates has been successfully employed to improve the removal of refractory pollutants. So, we hypothesized that the co-substrate strategy would increase antibiotic degradation and benefit microbial survival. In this work, we reported that co-substrate (acetate) addition up-regulated key degrading enzymes and resistance related genes in a model bacteria strain (L. aquatilis) when being treated with 0.055 mM amoxicillin (AMO). beta-Lactamase, amidases, transaminase, and amide C-N hydrolase showed increased activation. As a result, AMO removal reached similar to 95 %, a similar to 60 % increase over the control. Furthermore, the addition of acetate drove the down-stream TCA cycle, which accelerated the detoxification of the intermediates and reduced the microbial inhibition by the antibiotic products to as low as similar to 15 %. Besides, the expression levels of genes encoding the efflux pump, penicillin binding proteins, and beta-Lactamase were up-regulated, and the inhibition of peptidoglycan biosynthesis was down-regulated. The cell density was enhanced by similar to 170 % and showed improved DNA replication. In conclusion, the addition of the co-substrate accelerated AMO degradation and detoxification by up-regulating degrading enzymes and promoting cell resistance.