Multiple Layers of Phospho-Regulation Coordinate Metabolism and the Cell Cycle in Budding Yeast

The coordination of metabolism and growth with cell division is crucial for proliferation. While it has long been known that cell metabolism regulates the cell division cycle, it is becoming increasingly clear that the cell division cycle also regulates metabolism. In budding yeast, we previously showed that over half of all measured metabolites change concentration through the cell cycle indicating that metabolic fluxes are extensively regulated during cell cycle progression. However, how this regulation is achieved still remains poorly understood. Since both the cell cycle and metabolism are regulated to a large extent by protein phosphorylation, we here decided to measure the phosphoproteome through the budding yeast cell cycle. Specifically, we chose a cell cycle synchronization strategy that avoids stress and nutrient-related perturbations of metabolism, and we grew the yeast on ethanol minimal medium to force cells to utilize their full biosynthetic repertoire. Using a tandem-mass-tagging approach, we found over 200 sites on metabolic enzymes and transporters to be phosphoregulated. These sites were distributed among many pathways including carbohydrate catabolism, lipid metabolism, and amino acid synthesis and therefore likely contribute to changing metabolic fluxes through the cell cycle. Among all one thousand sites whose phosphorylation increases through the cell cycle, the CDK consensus motif and an arginine-directed motif were highly enriched. This arginine-directed R-R-x-S motif is associated with protein-kinase A, which regulates metabolism and promotes growth. Finally, we also found over one thousand sites that are dephosphorylated through the G1/S transition. We speculate that the phosphatase Glc7/PP1, known to regulate both the cell cycle and carbon metabolism, may play an important role because its regulatory subunits are phospho-regulated in our data. In summary, our results identify extensive cell cycle dependent phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of metabolic enzymes and suggest multiple mechanisms through which the cell division cycle regulates metabolic signaling pathways to temporally coordinate biosynthesis with distinct phases of the cell division cycle.