The occurrence and risk assessment of phenolic endocrine-disrupting chemicals in Egypt's drinking and source water

This is the first nationwide survey of bisphenol A (BPA), methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben, and o-phenylphenol, in Egypt's water. Five hundred fifty-five water samples were collected from source water (SW, 109 samples) and drinking water (DW, 446 samples) of twenty-three Egyptian governorates. These chemicals were determined by direct ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis of a filtered aliquot of samples. The impacts of the measured concentrations on the aquatic organisms and human health were evaluated as well. BPA, methylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben were frequently detected in SW and DW, while ethylparaben and o-phenylphenol were not detected whatsoever. The most frequently detected endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) was BPA in SW and methylparaben in DW. The recorded highest concentrations of BPA and methylparaben in SW and BPA and methylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben in DW were the highest worldwide. Of the investigated twenty-three governorates, the SW and DW of Aswan, Red Sea, Cairo, Sharqia, and Damietta were free of the studied EDCs. Contrarily, BPA, MeP, PrP, and BuP were detected in Sohag's SW and DW. A detection ratio > 70% was recorded in SW of Faiyum, Dakahlia, and Ismailia, and > 90% in DW of Sohag, Port Said, Dakahlia, and Faiyum. The environmental risk assessment results excluded any human health risk even in the worst-case scenario and showed that BPA represents the highest risk to the aquatic organisms.