Insect outbreaks have transient effects on carbon fluxes and vegetative growth but longer-term impacts on reproductive growth in a mangrove forest

Mangroves are experiencing frequent severe insect outbreaks, and the bud moth larvae (BML; Lasiognatha cellifera) is one of the most common leaf-feeding insects. However, the effects of insect outbreaks on ecosystem carbon fluxes of mangrove ecosystems are not well understood, and more importantly, the relative effects of these disturbances on vegetative and reproductive growth of mangroves remain unclear. We used measurements of plant litterfall, leaf damage percentage, and insect frass production, satellite-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and eddy covariance flux measurements to quantify the impacts of a BML outbreak in 2010 on carbon fluxes and both vegetative and reproductive growth of a mangrove forest. The BML outbreak occurred in 2010 damaged nearly 90% of the foliage, increased the annual leaf litterfall, and decreased the flower and propagule production. Net ecosystem productivity decreased following the insect disturbance and recovered within several months. There were no significant differences in annual carbon fluxes among the four years from 2009 to 2013. In contrast, the flower production significantly decreased and there was nearly no propagule production after the insect outbreak. Reproductive growth did not recover even two years after the insect outbreak. Our results showed that the BML outbreak had asymmetric effects on vegetative and reproductive growth of mangrove forests. Our findings can help us better understand the impacts of insect disturbances on mangrove ecosystems and also have implications for informing mangrove conservation and restoration efforts.