Global timber harvest footprints of nations and virtual timber trade flows

Intensified international trade has accelerated the global timber harvest and flows of timber and caused a series of climate and environmental problems. However, the full impacts of international trade on global timber harvest have not been well characterized, including the global timber harvest caused by the final consumption of nations (i.e., the timber harvest footprint). This study accounts for the timber harvest footprints of nations using a global timber-extended multi-regional input-output model. The results show that the timber harvest footprints of developed nations (e.g., Germany and Japan) have largely exceeded their direct timber harvests. However, in developing nations in South America and Africa (e.g., Brazil and Ghana), the direct timber harvest (248 million m(3) and 47 million m(3)) is much larger than the timber harvest footprint (222 million m(3) and 10 million m(3)). Emerging economies (e.g., India) have achieved simultaneous growth in the direct timber harvest and timber harvest footprint during 1990-2015, with average annual growth rates of 0.5% and 0.4%, respectively. Developing nations are mostly net exporters of the timber embodied in international trade (i.e., virtual timber). The destinations of virtual timber flows are mainly developed nations with abundant forest resources (e.g., the United States, Japan, and Germany). Our research findings not only contribute to identifying critical nations that directly or indirectly drive global timber harvests through global supply chains, but also identify the nations that have severe timber harvesting practices due to the current trade model. The policies related to forestry sustainability should consider the carrying capacity of forest resources, especially in developing nations, and commit to balancing the international trade of forest products. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.