Moving beyond the surface: Comparative head and neck myology of threadsnakes (Epictinae, Leptotyphlopidae, Serpentes), with comments on the 'scolecophidian' muscular system

Studies on the cephalic myology of snakes provide a series of relevant data on their biology and systematics. Despite the great amount of descriptive studies currently available for the group, much of the knowledge remains obscure for most scolecophidian taxa. This study aimed to describe in detail the cephalic (head and neck) myology of members of the tribe Epictinae, Leptotyphlopidae. We provide the first report of the presence of extrinsic ocular muscles, and a double Musculus pterygoideus acessorius in Leptotyphlopidae. A well-developed M. levator anguli oris is exclusive to the subtribes Renina and Epictina, being reduced in Tetracheilostomina species. Both inter-and intraspecific variations are reported for the head and neck muscles, and such results provide additional data and raise an interesting discussion on the neck-trunk boundaries in snakes. We also provide a discussion on the terminology of a few head muscles in Leptoyphlopidae in comparison to the other lineages of 'Scolecophidia' (Anomalepididae and Typhlopoidea).