Can't take the heat: Temperature-enhanced toxicity in the mayfly Isonychia bicolor exposed to the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid

Neonicotinoid insecticide usage has increased globally in recent decades. Neonicotinoids, such as imidacloprid, are potent insect neurotoxicants that may pose a threat to non-target aquatic organisms, such as aquatic insects. In nature, insects typically live in thermally fluctuating conditions, which may significantly alter both contaminant exposures and affects. Here we investigate the relationship between temperature and time-to-effect for imidacloprid toxicity with the aquatic insect Isonychia bicolor, a lotic mayfly. Additionally, we examined the mechanisms driving temperature-enhanced toxicity including metabolic rate, imidacloprid uptake rate, and tissue bioconcentration. Experiments included acute toxicity tests utilizing sublethal endpoints and mortality, as well as respirometry and radiotracer assays with [C-14] imidacloprid. Further, we conducted additional uptake experiments with a suite of aquatic invertebrates (including I. bicolor, Neocloeon triangulifer, Macaffertium modestum, Pteronarcys proteus, Acroneuria carolinensis, and Pleuroceridae sp) to confirm and contextualize our findings from initial experiments. The 96 h EC50 (immobility) for I. bicolor at 15 degrees C was 5.81 mu g/L which was approximately 3.2 fold lower than concentrations associated with 50% mortality. Assays examining the impact of temperature were conducted at 15, 18, 21, and 24 degrees C and demonstrated that time-to-effect for sublethal impairment and immobility was significantly decreased with increasing temperature. Uptake experiments with [C-14] imidacloprid revealed that initial uptake rates were significantly increased with increasing temperature for I. bicolor, as were oxygen consumption rates. Further, in the separate experiment with multiple species across temperatures 15, 20, and 25 degrees C, we found that all the aquatic insects tested had significantly increased imidacloprid uptake with increasing temperatures, with N. triangulifer accumulating the most imidacloprid on a mass-specific basis. Our acute toxicity results highlight the importance of evaluating sublethal endpoints, as profound impairments of motor function were evident far before mortality. Further, we demonstrate that temperature is a powerful modulator of sublethal toxicity within a range of environmentally relevant temperatures, impacting both uptake rates and metabolic rates of I. bicolor. Finally, we show that temperature alters imidacloprid uptake across a range of species, highlighting the physiological variation present within aquatic invertebrate communities and the challenge associated with relying solely on surrogate species. Taken together, this research points to the need to consider the role of temperature in toxicity assessments. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.