Self-smoothing anode for achieving high-energy lithium metal batteries under realistic conditions

Despite considerable efforts to stabilize lithium metal anode structures and prevent dendrite formation, achieving long cycling life in high-energy batteries under realistic conditions remains extremely difficult due to a combination of complex failure modes that involve accelerated anode degradation and the depletion of electrolyte and lithium metal. Here we report a self-smoothing lithium-carbon anode structure based on mesoporous carbon nanofibres, which, coupled with a lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide cathode with a high nickel content, can lead to a cell-level energy density of 350-380 Wh kg(-1) (counting all the active and inactive components) and a stable cycling life up to 200 cycles. These performances are achieved under the realistic conditions required for practical high-energy rechargeable lithium metal batteries: cathode loading >= 4.0 mAh cm(-2), negative to positive electrode capacity ratio <= 2 and electrolyte weight to cathode capacity ratio <= 3 g Ah(-1). The high stability of our anode is due to the amine functionalization and the mesoporous carbon structures that favour smooth lithium deposition.