Neotropical freshwater stingrays (Chondrichthyes - Potamotrygoninae): biology, general features and envenomation

Neotropical stingrays have stingers at the base of the tail, which are used in self-defense and are covered with an epithelium containing mucous and venom glands. The stingray then sinks its stinger into the victim, causing an extremely painful wound, which can result in tissue necrosis. Medical treatment is based on the use of painkillers, anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics, as to date there is no specific antidote for this type of envenomation. Public health authorities should therefore plan measures aimed at the treatment and epidemiologic reporting of stingray envenomation so as to encourage, and provide a basis for, the relevant organs to implement measures to raise environmental awareness, train health professionals to treat victims of envenomation and undertake studies to produce specific serum therapies.